substance. Some of the British colonies have conferred a statutory
right to remove fixtures on tenants (cf. Tasmania, Landlord and
Tenant Act 1874). In certain of the colonies acquired by cession or
settlement (e.g. New Zealand) the English Landlord and Tenant Act
1851 is in force.
Authorities.—English law: Amos and Ferard, Law of Fixtures (3rd ed., London, 1883); Brown, Law of Fixtures (3rd ed., London, 1875); Ryde, on Rating (2nd ed., London, 1905). Scots Law: Hunter, Landlord and Tenant; Erskine’s Principles (20th ed., Edin., 1903). American Law: Bronson, Law of Fixtures (St Paul, 1904); Reeves, Real Property (Boston, 1904); Ruling Cases (London and Boston, 1894–1901), Tit. “Fixtures” (American Notes). (A. W. R.)
FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS (1819–1896), French
physicist, was born at Paris on the 23rd of September 1819. His earliest work was concerned with improvements in photographic processes; and then, in association with J. B. L. Foucault,
he engaged in a series of investigations on the interference of
light and heat. In 1849 he published the first results obtained
by his method for determining the speed of propagation of light
(see Light), and in 1850 with E. Gounelle measured the velocity of electricity. In 1853 he described the employment of the condenser
as a means for increasing the efficiency of the induction-coil. Subsequently he studied the expansion of solids by heat, and applied the phenomena of interference of light to the measurement
of the dilatations of crystals. He died at Venteuil on the 18th of September 1896. He became a member of the French
Academy in 1860 and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878.
FJORD, or Fiord, the anglicized Norwegian word for a long narrow arm of the sea running far inland, with more or less
precipitous cliffs on each side. These “sea-lochs,” as they are
sometimes called, present many peculiar features. They differ
entirely from an estuary in the fact that they are bounded seawards
by a rocky sill, covered by shallow water, and they deepen
inland for some distance before the bottom again curves up to
the surface. They are thus true rock basins drowned in sea-water.
It is pointed out by Dr H. R. Mill that Loch Morar on
the west coast of Scotland, a fresh-water basin 178 fathoms deep,
with its surface 30 ft. above sea-level, which is connected with
the sea by a short river, is exactly similar in configuration to
Loch Etive, 80 fathoms deep, filled with sea-water which pours
over the seaward sill in a waterfall with the retreating tide;
that Loch Nevis with a depth of 70 fathoms has its sill 8 fathoms
below the surface, while the gigantic Sogne Fjord in Norway,
more than 100 m. in length, is a rock basin with a maximum
depth of 700 fathoms. Any inland rock basin such as Loch
Morar would become a fjord if the seaward portion sank below
sea-level. The origin of these rock basins has not yet been
satisfactorily determined. Recent work upon somewhat similar
basins in the high Alps has suggested local weathering of surface
rock in fracture belts or faulted areas, or dikes, where material
is easily eroded, thus producing a trough bounded by high walls
in which a lake forms under favourable conditions. But investigations
in such regions as the Rocky Mountains and the
Yosemite Valley, where there is frequently a “reversed grade”
similar to that near the seaward end of rock basins and fjords,
seem to show, in some cases at least, that such a formation may
be due to the “gouging” effect of a glacier coming down the
valley which it constantly deepens where the ice pressure and
the supply of eroding material are greatest. There may be several
causes, but the results are the same in all these drowned valleys.
The mass of sea-water in the depth of the basin is either unaffected
by the seasonal changes in surface temperature, which
in Norway penetrate no deeper than 200 fathoms, or else, as in
Loch Goil, the fresher film of surface water responds quickly to
seasonal changes, while the heat of advancing summer penetrates
so slowly to the depth of the basin that it takes six months
to reach the bottom, arriving there in winter. It has been found
that where the fresher surface water has been frozen over, the
temperature may be as much as 45° F. at a few fathoms from
the surface. When the surface is warmest, on the other hand,
the depths are coldest.
FLACCUS, a cognomen in the plebeian gens Fulvia, one of the most illustrious in ancient Rome. Cicero and Pliny state that the family came from Tusculum, where some were still living in the middle of the 1st century B.C. Of the Fulvii Flacci the most important were the following:
Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, son of the first of the family, Marcus, who was consul with Appius Claudius Caudex in 264. He especially distinguished himself during the second Punic War. He was consul four times (237, 224, 212, 209), censor (231) pontifex maximus (216), praetor urbanus (215). During his first consulships he did good service against the Ligurians, Gauls and Insubrians. In 212 he defeated Hanno near Beneventum, and with his colleague Appius Claudius Pulcher began the siege of Capua. The capture of this place was considered so important that their imperium was prolonged, but on condition that they should not leave Capua until it had been taken. Hannibal’s unexpected diversion against Rome interfered with the operations for the moment, but his equally unexpected retirement enabled Flaccus, who had been summoned to Rome to protect the city, to return, and bring the siege to a successful conclusion. He punished the inhabitants with great severity, alleging in excuse that they had shown themselves bitterly hostile to Rome. He was nominated dictator to hold the consular elections at which he was himself elected (209). He was appointed to the command of the army in Lucania and Bruttium, where he crushed all further attempts at rebellion. Nothing further is known of him. The chief authority for his life is the part of Livy dealing with the period (see Punic Wars).
His brother Gnaeus was convicted of gross cowardice against Hannibal near Herdoniae in 210, and went into voluntary exile at Tarquinii. His son, Quintus, waged war with signal success against the Celtiberians in 182–181, and the Ligurians in 179. Having vowed to build a temple to Fortuna Equestris, he dismantled the temple of Juno Lacinia in Bruttium of its marble slabs. This theft became known and he was compelled to restore them, though they were never put back in their places. Subsequently he lost his reason and hanged himself.
Marcus Fulvius Flaccus, grandnephew of the first Quintus, lived in the times of the Gracchi, of whom he was a strong supporter. After the death of Tiberius Gracchus (133 B.C.) he was appointed in his place one of the commission of three for the distribution of the land. He was suspected of having had a hand in the sudden death of the younger Scipio (129), but there was no direct evidence against him. When consul in 125, he proposed to confer the Roman citizenship on all the allies, and to allow even those who had not acquired it the right of appeal to the popular assembly against penal judgments. This proposal, though for the time successfully opposed by the senate, eventually led to the Social War. The attack made upon the Massilians (who were allies of Rome) by the Salluvii (Salyes) afforded a convenient excuse for sending Flaccus out of Rome. After his return in triumph, he was again sent away (122), this time with Gaius Gracchus to Carthage to found a colony, but did not remain absent long. In 121 the disputes between the optimates and the party of Gracchus culminated in open hostilities, during which Flaccus was killed, together with Gracchus and a number of his supporters. It is generally agreed that Flaccus was perfectly honest in his support of the Gracchan reforms, but his hot-headedness did more harm than good to the cause. Cicero (Brutus, 28) speaks of him as an orator of moderate powers, but a diligent student.
See Livy, Epit. 59-61; Val. Max. ix. 5. 1; Vell. Pat. ii. 6; Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 18, 21, 24-26; Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 10. 13; also A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist. of Rome (1904), and authorities quoted under Gracchus.
FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES (1846–), French jurist and
historian, was born at Strassburg, Alsace, on the 16th of February
1846, of a family known at least as early as the 16th century, when
Sigismond Flach was the first professor of law at Strassburg
University. G. J. Flach studied classics and law at Strassburg,
and in 1869 took his degree of doctor of law. In his theses as
well as in his early writings—such as De la subrogation réelle,
La Bonorum possessio, and Sur la durée des effets de la minorité (1870)—he endeavoured to explain the problems of laws by
