Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion (cf. Tert. Adv. Marc. 2-4) removed what he judged to be some interpolations, but van Manen’s attempt to prove that Marcion’s text is more original than the canonical (Theolog. Tijdschrift, 1887, 400 f. 451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen’s refutation in Die Einheitlichkeit der paulin. Briefe, 1894, pp. 100 f. and Zahn’s Geschichte d. N. T. lichen Kanons, ii. 409 f.), and little or no weight attaches to the attempts made (e.g. by J. A. Cramer) to disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even D. Völter, who applies this method to the other Pauline epistles, admits that Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a literary unity (Paulus und seine Briefe, 1905, pp. 229-285). The frequent roughnesses of the traditional text suggest, however, that here and there marginal glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25a (τὸ γὰρ Σινᾶ ὄρος ἐστὶν ἐν τῇ Ἀραβίᾳ) probably represents the explanatory and prosaic gloss of a later editor, as many scholars have seen from Bentley (Opuscula philologica, 1781, pp. 533 f.) to H. A. Schott, J. A. Cramer, J. M. S. Baljon and C. Holsten. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and unpremeditated, “one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine and inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood, such as may often have been seen by his Galatians” (J. Macgregor). But there is a certain rhythmical balance, especially in the first chapter (cf. J. Weiss, Beiträge zur paulin. Rhetorik, 1897, 8 f.); here as elsewhere the rush and flow of feeling carry with them some care for rhetorical form, in the shape of antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might more or less unconsciously retain.[1] All through, the letter shows the breaks and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis. Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument, are its most characteristic features.[2] The trenchant remonstrances and fiery outbursts make it indeed “read like a dithyramb from beginning to end.”
Bibliography.—Of more modern editions in English, the most competent are those of C. J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic and grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869), J. B. Lightfoot (11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and F. Rendall (Expositor’s Greek Testament, 1903) on the Greek text; Dr Sanday (in Ellicott’s Commentary, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor (Edinburgh, 1879), B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (Pulpit Comment., 1885), Dr Agar Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W. F. Adeney (Century Bible), Dr E. H. Perowne (Cambridge Bible, 1890) and Dr James Drummond (Internat. Handbooks to N.T., 1899) also comment on the English text. The editions of Lightfoot and Jowett are especially valuable for their subsidiary essays, and Sir W. M. Ramsay’s Historical Commentary on Galatians (1899) contains archaeological and historical material which is often illuminating. The French editions are few and minor, those by A. Sardinoux (Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being adequate, however. In Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by F. Sieffert (in Meyer’s Comment., 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1907); these supersede most of the earlier works, but H. A. Schott (1834), A. Wieseler (Göttingen, 1859), G. B. Winer (4th ed., 1859), J. C. K. von Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R. A. Lipsius (2nd ed., Hand.-Commentar, 1892), and Zöckler (2nd ed., 1894) may still be consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld’s commentary (1852) discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the standpoint of Baur’s criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed., 1894) and W. Bousset (in Die Schriften des N.T., 2nd ed., 1907) are more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843), F. X. Reithmayr (1865), A. Schäfer (Münster, 1890) and F. Cornely (1892, also in Cursus scripturae sacrae, 1907) are the most satisfactory modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it should not be forgotten that the 16th century produced the Literalis expositio of Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre Barahona (Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition of Luther (Latin, 1519, &c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After Calvin and Grotius, H. E. G. Paulus (Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe an die Gal. u. Römer Christen, 1831) was perhaps the most independent interpreter. For the patristic editions, see the introductory sections in Zahn and Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle is admirably expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten (Das Evangelium Paulus, Teil I., i., 1880), A. B. Bruce (St Paul’s Conception of Christianity, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G. G. Findlay (Expositor’s Bible). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (Galat. und Apostelgeschichte, 1882) and M. Thomas (Mélanges d’histoire et de litt. religieuse, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E. H. Askwith’s essay (Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date, 1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W. S. Wood (Studies in St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians, 1887) criticizes Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all biographies of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in works like Sabatier’s The Apostle Paul (pp. 187 f.), B. W. Bacon’s Story of St Paul (pp. 116 f.), Dr R. D. Shaw’s The Pauline Epistles (2nd ed., pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano, Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli (1902), i. pp. 111 f., and Volkmar’s Paulus vom Damaskus bis zum Galaterbrief (1887), to which may be added a series of papers by Haupt in Deutsche Evang.-Blätter (1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183, 238-259, and an earlier set by Hilgenfeld in the Zeitschrift für wiss. Theologie (“Zur Vorgeschichte des Gal.” 1860, pp. 206 f., 1866, pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.). Other monographs and essays have been noted in the course of this article. See further under Paul. (J. Mt.)
GALATINA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce,
from which it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) 12,917 (town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remarkable
for the fine Gothic church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by
Raimondello del Balzo Orsini, count of Soleto, with a fine portal
and rose-window. The interior contains frescoes by Francesco
d’ Arezzo (1435). The apse contains the fine mausoleum of the
son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported by four columns,
with his statue beneath it.
GALATZ (Galaţii), a city of Rumania, capital of the department
of Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m.
W. by N. of its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including
12,000 Jews. The Danube is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of
Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E. Galatz is built on a slight
eminence among the marshes which line the intervening shore
and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the shallow
mere called Lake Bratych (Brateşul), more than 50 sq. m. in
extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the 19th
century, of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-paved
streets and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every
year, the city improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays
were constructed along the Danube; electric tramways were
opened in the main streets, which were lighted by gas or
electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher, or north-western
part of the city, which is the more open and comfortable,
contains many of the chief buildings. These include the prefecture,
consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals
and the offices of the international commission for the control of
the Danube (q.v.). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at
Galatz. There are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and
other churches; the most interesting being the cathedral, and
St Mary’s church, in which is the tomb of the famous Cossack
chief, Mazeppa (1644–1709), said to have been rifled of its contents
by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and the headquarters
of the III. army corps, protected by a line of fortifications which
extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as the Sereth line.
But the main importance of the city is commercial. Galatz is the
chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three waterways,
the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual
volume of traffic, except in mid-winter; and by the railways
which intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles,
machinery, and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a
large trade in petroleum and salt, Galatz ranks first among
Rumanian cities in its export of timber, and second to Braila in
its export of grain. It possesses many saw-mills, paste-mills,
flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and petroleum refineries;
manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap and candles.
Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but cargoes
consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at
Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the
principal owners being British.
GALAXY, properly the Milky Way, from the Greek name ὁ γαλαξίας, sc. κύκλος, from γάλα, milk, cf. the Lat. via lactea (see
Star). The word is more generally employed in its figurative or
- ↑ Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass, Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa (1905), pp. 43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 (ἐμοὶ μὲν ουκ ὀκνηρόν, ὑμῖν δ’ ἀσφαλές) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv. 33, a reminiscence of Menander.
- ↑ This affects even the vocabulary which has also “einen gewissen vulgären Zug” (Nägeli, Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus, 1905, pp. 78-79).
