characteristic is primarily the negation of the Finite. A similar metaphysic from a different starting-point is found in Heraclitus, who postulates behind the perpetually changing universe of phenomena a One which remains. This attitude towards existence, expressing itself in different phraseology, has been prominent to a greater or less degree since Xenophanes and Heraclitus. Thus the metaphysic of Plato finds reality only in the "Idea," of which all phenomena are merely imperfect copies. Neoplatonism (and especially Plotinus) adopted a similar attitude. The Stoics, with the supreme object of giving to human life a definite unity and purpose, made the individual a part of the universe and sought to obliterate all differences. The universe to them is a manifestation of divine reason, while all things come from and return to (the ὁδὸς ἅνω κάτω) the πνεῦμα διάπυρον, the ultimate matter. The same problems in a different context confronted the monotheistic religions of Judaism and Christianity. We find Philo Judaeus endeavouring to free the concept of the Old Testament Yahweh from anthropomorphic characteristics and finite determinations. But though Philo sees the difficulties of the orthodox Judaism he cannot accept pantheism or mysticism so far as to give up the personality of God (see Logos).
With Neoplatonism we enter upon a somewhat different though closely allied attitude of mind. To Plotinus God lies beyond sense and imagination: all the theologian can do is to point the way in which the thinker must travel. Though the spirit and the language of Plotinus is closely allied to that of pantheism, the result of his thinking is not pantheism but mysticism. This may be briefly illustrated by a comparison with the greatest of modern pantheists, Spinoza. To him God is the immanent principle of the universe—"Deus sive Natura." On the principle that everything which is determined (finite) is "negated" (determinatio est negatio), God, the ultimate reality must be entirely undetermined. To explain the universe Spinoza proceeds to argue that God, though undetermined ab extra, is capable of infinite self-determination. Thus God, the causa sui, manifests himself in an infinite multiplicity of particular modes. Spinoza is, therefore, both pantheist and pancosmist: God exists only as realized in the cosmos: the cosmos exists only as a manifestation of God. Plotinus, on the other hand, cannot admit any realization or manifestation of the Infinite: God is necessarily above the world—he has no attributes, and is unthinkable. Such a view is not pantheism but mysticism (q.v.), and should be compared with the theology of Oriental races.
The semi-Oriental mysticism of the Neoplatonists and the Logos doctrines of the Stoics alike influence early Christian doctrine, and the pantheistic view is found frequently in medieval theology (e.g. in Erigena, Meister Eckhardt, Jakob Boehme). The Arabic scholar Averroes gave Aristotle to western Europe in a pantheistic garb, and thus influenced medieval scientists. So Bruno constructed a personified nature, and the scientific and humanistic era began. The pantheism of Spinoza, combining as it did the religious and the scientific points of view, had a wide influence upon thought and culture. Schelling (in his Identity-philosophy) and Hegel both carried on the pantheistic tradition, which after Hegel broke up into two lines of thought, the one pantheistic the other atheistic.
From the religious point of view there are two main problems. The first is to establish any real relation between the individual and God without destroying personality and with it the whole idea of human responsibility and free will: the second is to explain the infinity of God without destroying his personality. In what sense can God be outside the world see Deism): in what sense in it (pantheism)? The great objection to pantheism is that, though ostensibly it magnifies the Creator and gets rid of the difficult dualism of Creator and Creation, it tends practically to deny his existence in any practical intelligible sense.
PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. πάνθειον all-holy, from πᾶς, all, and θεός god), the name of two buildings in
Rome and Paris respectively; more generally, the name of any building in which as a mark of honour the bodies of the nation's famous men are buried, or "memorials" or monuments to them are placed. Thus Westminster Abbey is sometimes styled the British " Pantheon," and the rotunda in the Escorial where the kings of Spain are buried also bears the name. Near
Regensburg (q.v.) is the pantheon of German worthies, known as the Valhalla. The first building to which the name was given was that built in Rome in 27 B.C. by Agrippa; it was burned later and the existing building was erected in the reign of Hadrian; since A.D. 600 it has been a Christian church, S Maria Rotunda. It was the Paris building that gave rise to the generic use of the term for a building where a nation's illustrious dead rest. The Pantheon in Paris was the church built in the classical style by Soufflot; it was begun in 1764 and consecrated to the patroness of the city, Sainte Geneviève. At the Revolution it was secularized under the name of Le Panthéon, and dedicated to the great men of the nation; It was reconsecrated in 1828 for worship, was again secularized in 1830, was once more a place of worship from 1851 to 1870, and was then a third time secularized. On the entablature is inscribed the words Aux Grandes Hommes La Patrie Reconnaissante. The decree of 1885 finally established the building for the purpose for which the name now stands.
PANTHER, another name for the leopard (q.v), also used in America as the name of the puma (q.v.). The word is adaptation of Lat. panthera; Gr. πάνθηρ the supposed derivation, of which from πᾶς, all and θήρ, and, animal, gave rise to tailes and fables in medieval bestiaries and later scientific works. The panther was supposed to be a distinct animal from the pardus, pard, the leopard, to which also many legends are attached. In modern times a distinction had been unscientfically drawn between a larger type of leopard to which the name panther was given, and a smaller and more graceful specimen.
PANTIN, a town of northern France in the department, of Seine, on the Canal d'Ourcq, adjoining the fortifications of Paris on the north-east. Pop. (1906), 32,694., The manufacture of boilers, railway wagons, machinery, oil, glass, chemicals, polish and perfumery, and the operations of dye-works, foundries and distilleries, represent some of the varied branches of its industrial activity. There is also a state manufactory of tabacco.
PANTOGRAPH, or Pantagraph, (from the Greek πᾶντα, all, and γράφειν, to write), an instrument for making a reduced, an enlarged, or an exact copy of a plane figure.
In its commonest form it consists of two long arms, AB and AC (fig. i), jointed together at. 4, and two short arms, FD and FE,
Fig. i.
jointed together at F and with the long arms at D and E; FD is made exactly equal to AE and FE to AD, so that ADFE is a parallelogram whatever the angle at A. The instrument is supported parallel to the paper on castors, on which it, moves freely A tube is usually fixed vertically at c, near the extremity of the long arm AC, and similar tubes are mounted on plates which slide along the short arms BD and FD they are intended to hold either the axle pin on a weighted fulcrum round which the instrument turns, or a steel pointer, or a pencil, interchangeably. When the centres of the tubes are exactly in a straight line, as on the dotted line bfc, the small triangle bfD will always be similar to the large triangle bcA; and then if the fulcrum is placed under b, the pencil at f. and the pointer at c, when the instrument is moved round the fulcrum as a pivot, the pencil and the pointer will move parallel to each other through distances which will be respectively in the proportion of bf to be; thus the pencil at f draws a reduced copy of the map under the pointer at c; if the pencil and the pointer were interchanged an enlarged copy would be drawn; if the fulcrum and pencil were interchanged, and the sliders set for f to bisect bc, the map would be copied exactly. Line are engraved on the arms BD and FD, to indicate the positions to which the sliders must be set for the ratios 12, 13 ... which are commonly required.
The square pantograph of Adrian Gavard consists of two graduated arms which are pivoted on a plain bar and connected by a graduated bar sliding between them throughout their entire length, to be set
