became a wanderer in Italy. In August 1414 Ladislaus died, and was succeeded by the scandalous Queen Joanna II. The Roman people promptly expelled the Neapolitans, and Cardinal Isolani, John's legate, succeeding in rousing a reaction in favour of the church, constituted a government of thirteen “conservators” on the 19th of October.
In November 1414 the council of Constance assembled
and at last ended the schism by deposing all the popes
and incarcerating John XXIII., the most turbulent
of the three. On the 11th of November 1417 Oddo
Colonna was unanimously elected to the papal chair;
End of the schism, and election of Martin V.
Rome in a state
of anarchy.
he was consecrated in the cathedral on the 27th as
Pope Martin V., and, being acknowledged by all,
hastened without delay to take possession of his see. Meanwhile
disorder was at its height in Rome. The cardinal legate
Isolani governed as he best could, while the castle
of St Angelo remained in the hands of the Neapolitans,
who still had a party in the city. In
this divided state of affairs, Braccio, a daring captain of
adventurers, nicknamed Fortebraccio, was inspired with the
idea of making himself master of Rome. Overcoming the feeble
resistance opposed to him, he succeeded in this on the 16th
of June 1416, and assumed the title of “Defensor Urbis.”
But Joanna of Naples dispatched Sforza, an equally valiant
captain, against him, and, without offering battle, Fortebraccio
withdrew on the 26th of August, after having been absolute
master of the Eternal City for seventy days. Sforza marched
in on the 27th and took possession of the city in the name of
Joanna. Martin V. instantly proved himself a good statesman.
He confirmed the legate Isolani as his vicar and
Giovanni Savelli as senator. Leaving Constance on the 16th of
May 1418, he reached Milan on the 12th of October, and slowly
proceeded on his journey. While in Florence he dispatched
his brother and nephew to Naples to make alliance with Joanna,
and caused her to be crowned on the 28th of October 1419 by
his legate Morosini. Upon this she promised to give up Rome
to the pope. Her general, Sforza, then entered the service of
Martin V., and compelled Fortebraccio, who was lingering in
a threatening attitude at Perugia, to make peace with the
pope. The latter entrusted Fortebraccio with the conduct
of the campaign against Bologna, and that city was reduced
to submission on the 15th of July 1420. The Romans had
already yielded to Martin's brother the legate, and now
earnestly besought the arrival of their pope. Accordingly,
he left Florence on the 19th of September 1420, and entered the
Vatican on the 28th. Rome was in ruins; nobility and burghers
were equally disorganized, the people unable to bear arms and
careless of their rights, while the battered walls of the Capitol
recorded the fall of two republics.
Martin V. had now to fulfil a far more difficult task than that of taking possession of Rome. Throughout Italy municipal freedom was overthrown, and the Roman Republic had ceased to exist. The Middle Ages were ended; the Renaissance was beginning. The universal unity The popes of the Renaissance. both of church and of empire was dissolved; the empire was now Germanic, and derived its principal strength from direct dominion over a few provinces. Independent and national states were already formed or forming on all sides. The papacy itself had ceased to claim universal supremacy over the wor1d's governments, and the possession of a temporal state had become essential to its existence. In fact, Martin V. was the first of the series of popes who were real sovereigns, and more occupied with politics than religion. Involved in all the foreign intrigues, falsehoods and treacheries of Italian diplomacy in the 15th century, their internal policy was imbued with all the arts practised by the tyrants of the Renaissance, and nepotism became necessarily the basis of their strength. It was natural that men suddenly elected sovereigns of a new country where they had no ties, and of which they had often no knowledge, should seek to strengthen their position by aggrandizing so-called nephews who were not infrequently their sons.
Martin V. reduced the remains of the free Roman government to a mere civil municipality. Following the method of the other despots of Italy, the old republican institutions were allowed to retain their names and forms, their administrative and some of their The temporal kingdom of the popes raised on the ruins of the republic. judicial attributes, while all their political functions were transferred to the new government. Order was re-established, and justice rigidly observed. Many rebellious places were subdued by the sword, and many leaders of armed bands were hanged. The pope, however, was forced to lean on his kinsmen the Colonna and again raise them to power by grants of vast fiefs both in his own state and the Neapolitan territory. And, after first supporting Joanna II., who had assisted his entry into Rome, he next sided with her adversary, Louis of Anjou, and then with Alphonso of Aragon, the conqueror of both and the constant friend of the pope, who at last felt safe on his throne. Rome now enjoyed order, peace and security, but had lost all hope of liberty. And when Martin died (20th February 1431) these words were inscribed on his tomb, “Temporum suorum felicitas.”
Eugenius IV. (1431–47) leant on the Orsini, and was fiercely opposed by the Colonna, who excited the people against him. Accordingly on the 29th of May 1434 the Romans rose in revolt to the old cry of “Popolo e popolo,” and again constituted the rule of the seven governors A revolution expels the pope. of liberty. The pope fled by boat down the Tiber, and, being pursued with stones and shots, narrowly escaped with his life. On reaching Florence, he turned his energies to the recovery of the state. It was necessary to quell the people; but, first of all, the Colonna and the clan of the prefects of Vico, with their renewed princely power, had to be overthrown. The Orsini were still his friends. Eugenius entrusted the campaign to Patriarch (afterwards Cardinal) Vitelleschi, a worthy successor of Albornoz, and of greater ferocity if less talent. This leader marched his army towards Rome, and, instantly attacking Giovanni, prefect of Vico, captured and beheaded him. The family was now extinguished; and its possessions reverting to the church, the greater part of them were sold or given to Count Everso d'Anguillara, of the house of Orsini. The prefecture, now little more than an honorary title, was bestowed at will by the popes. Eugenius gave it to Francesco, founder of the powerful line of the Gravina-Orsini. Thus one noble family was raised to greatness while another perished by the sword. Vitelleschi had already begun to persecute the Colonna and the Savelli, and committed terrible slaughter among them. Many castles were demolished, many towns destroyed, and their inhabitants, driven to wander famine-stricken over the Campagna, had to sell themselves as slaves for the sake of bread. Finally the arrogant patriarch marched into Rome, as into a conquered city, at the head of his men, and the Romans crouched at his feet. The pope now began to distrust him, and sent Scarampo, another prelate of the same stamp, to take his place. This new commander Eugenius IV. resumes possession. soon arrived, and, perceiving that Vitelleschi proposed to resist, had him surrounded by his soldiers, who were obliged to use force to compel his surrender. Vitelleschi was carried bleeding to the castle of St Angelo, where he soon afterwards died. The pope at last returned to Rome in 1443, and remained there quietly till his death in 1447.
His successor Nicholas V. (1447–55) was a scholar solely devoted to the patronage of literati and artists. During his reign there was a fresh attempt to restore the republic, but it was rather prompted by literary and classical enthusiasm than by any genuine patriotic ardour. Political passions Conspiracy of Stefano Porcari. and interests had ceased to exist. The conspiracy was headed by Stefano Porcari, a man of the people, who claimed to be descended from Cato. He had once been captain of the people in Florence, and was made podestà of Bologna by Eugenius IV. He was a caricature of Cola di Rienzi, and extravagantly proud of his
