phonies. Koloman Mikszath, the greatest Hungarian novelist after jokai, died in 1910; his The Black City did not appear until ion, and his Posthumous Works were issued subsequently. Among the effec- tive romance writers of the old school was Francis Herczeg (b. 1863), who wrote numerous novels, and also appeared as a playwright in Blue Fox and The Black Horseman. Noteworthy also was Geiza Gardonyi (b. 1863), who draws his homely themes from the life of the villages and small towns, but who also seeks inspiration in Hungarian heroic legend and in the faith of mediaeval cloisters. Gardonyi is one of the most sympathetic of contemporary Hun- garian writers; as in his tales The Longhaired Peril and 'Tis Far Till Then (1913) ; Stephen Tomorkeny wrote genre word-pictures, such as People in the Service of the Country (1916) ; as also did the novelist Cilcilie Tormay (b. 1876), e.g. The Old House. In light literature Julius Pekar did some good work, and also as a political writer in support of national ideals. Noteworthy also are the popular writers Koloman Catho and Alfred von Drasche-Lazar.
The conservative literary school was supported by a host of competent critics. Eugen Rakosi (b. 1842) opposed the modern literature of decadence with all the force of his burning enthusiasm, as in his For the Hungarian Idea. Zoltan Ambrus (b. 1861) was an esteemed dramatic critic. G. Vojnovich (b. 1877), E. Csaszar (b. 1878) and L. K6ky were also critics of conservative tendencies.
After the revolution of Oct. 30 1918, the political current brought to the surface a mass of pacifist, defeatist and cosmopolitan litera- ture. Under the presidency of Ady and Siegmund Moricz, the progressives founded their own Academy which they named after the national romantic poet, Vorosmarty. With the end of the World War signs of futurism and expressionism had already appeared. The new writers of the social world-revolution rejected all ooetical form. Their ideals were cosmic universalism and the collective solidarity of international mankind. But only one of them possessed any real merit the iron-worker Louis Kaszak, who had developed from naturalism into the poet of the proletariat in his Book of new Poets. The periodical To-day became the semi-official organ of Com- munist literature. It must be added that Communism in Hungary, as in Russia, suppressed the free publication of books and appointed the People's Commissariat as sole publisher with the unrestricted right of censorship. The book market was now flooded with works of Communist propaganda. The theatres, turned into State institu- tions, were forced to perform plays with a Communist moral. No composition of any permanent value was produced by the Com- mune. After its fall Desider Szabo took the lead of the new literary movement. In his poems he laments in vigorous language the Szeklers of Transylvania, now separated from their mother country, as in his The Village Torn Away (1919). In addition to Szabo, a poet writing under the pseudonym of " Vegvari " protested in the poem Help! against the dismemberment of Hungary.
Journalism, finally, has developed greatly in Hungary since the 'seventies and, since it employs a number of literary men, deserves mention here. Numerous periodicals are in the habit of publishing feuilletons, short stories and serial novels.
History. The centre of Hungarian historical research, as of the other sciences, is the Hungarian Academy of Science, of which Albert von Berzeviczy (b. 1853) was president in 1921. Robbed of its revenues under the Bolshevik regime, vigorous efforts were made to reestablish it after the restoration of order.
In historical writing and research great activity has been displayed in Hungary since 1910. Vol. xii. of Arpad Karolyi's Acts of the Hungarian Parliament contains fresh material of great importance for the study of the religious wars of the i6th century in Hungary. Desider Czanki published a further instalment of his Historical Geography of Hungary during the period of the Hunyadi; Lukinich his Transylvania's territorial transformations; and Julius Nagy Codex diplomaticus Andageviensis; Samuel Gergely, Codex Comitum Teleki; Francis Dory, Codex Comitum Zichy. Other works of original re- search are: William Fraknoi (b. 1843), Critical Studies relating to the History ofjhe Triple Alliance, and The place of Hungary in the World War; Arpad Karolyi, The Dobling literary remains of Count Stephen Ssechenyi; Eduard von Wertheimer (b. 1848), Count Julius Andrdssy, his life and times and Friedenskongresse und Friedens- schliisse; Viktor Concha (b. 1846), The Friendship of Baron Eotvos and Monlalambert; Heinrich Marczali (b. 1856), Ungarische Verfas- sungsgeschichte; Julius Szekfii (b. 1883), The Hungarian State, and Three Generations, the History of a declining Age; Balint Homan, The financial History of Hungary from 10001325; Ladislaus von Szabo, History of the countly family of Ssechenyi; Baron Gabriel Szalay, Letters of Ladislaus von Szalay; Stephen Cserey, The Law of Succession to the Hungarian throne; Alexander Domanowszky (b. 1877), The Succession to the throne in the time of the Arpads.
Philosophy. In the domain of philosophy Karl Bohm (d. 1911) was very productive. After his death appeared (1912) the 4th volume of his principal work Man and his World, in which he sought further to develop the subjective idealism of Fichte. Bernhard Alexander (b. 1850) published Essays in the field of Modern Phil- osophy; Julius Kornis (b. 1885), Causality and the reign of law in Philosophy; Eugen Posch, The Phenomena of our Soul and their Nature; Cecil Bognar, Causality and the reign of Law in Physics; Akusius Pauler (b. 1876) published An Introduction to Philosophy, which reached a 2nd edition as early as 1921.
Jurisprudence. Among writers on scientific jurisprudence the following deserve special mention: Alexander PIosz (b. 1846), Law of civil procedure; Alexander Raffay, Hungarian Private Law; Joseph Illes (b. 1871), Introduction to the history of Hungarian Law; Gustav Szaszy-Schwarz, New Directions in Private Law; Ernst Wittmann, Methods of peaceful settlement of international disputes and Past and present of the right of the self-determination of national- ities; Geza Magyary (b. 1864), Civil procedure and Procedure in International Arbitration; Paul Angyal (b. 1873), Hungarian criminal procedure; Julius Derto, The principle of objective damages for injury; John Karacsonyi (b. 1858), The territorial historical law of the Hungarian Nation; Stephen Ereky, Studies in historical Jurisprudence and in administration; Felix Somlo (d. 1920), The foundations of Jurisprudence, one of the most important works, which defines in a new way the ideas of law and of the State; Francis Finkey (b. 1870), Manual of Hungarian criminal law procedure; Wolfgang Heller, Principles of Political Economy (1920). (B. Z.)
HUNTER, SIR ROBERT (1844-1913), English lawyer and philanthropist, was born Oct. 27 1844. Educated at the university of London, he qualified as a solicitor in 1867, and in 1882 became solicitor to the General Post Office. He devoted much of his time and energy to safeguarding the rights of the public in regard to open spaces and the preservation of rights of way, and was one of the principal promoters of the Commons Preser- vation Society founded in 1865. In 1868 he became its hon. solicitor, and successfully conducted suits for preserving Wimble- don and Wandsworth Commons and recovering a portion, wrong- fully enclosed, of Epping Forest. Ashdown Forest, Hampstead Heath, Hindhead and the New Forest were also safeguarded by him. He was made K.C.B. in 1911, and died at Haslemere Nov. 6 1913, after a strenuous life of public service.
HUSEIN IBN 'ALI (1856- ), Emir or Sherif of Mecca and first King of the Hejaz, came of the "Abadila clan of the Ashraf (see 2.262) and was grandson of the first 'Abadila Emir, he died in 1858. He was born at Constantinople, but at the age of eight was taken to Mecca, where he followed a course of Moslem studies. He began his official career by assisting successive Sherif s, 'Abdulla and Husein (his uncles), in administration; but on the death of the latter in 1884 he acted in opposition to the succeeding Sherif 'Aun er Rafiq a favourite of 'Abdul Hamid and Emir from 1882 to 1905 and was eventually (1895) sent to Constantinople. He became a member of the Imperial Ottoman Council. On the death of Sherif 'Ali, successor of 'Aun, Husein's uncle, 'Abdulla, was nominated to the Sherifate by the Porte, but he died on his way to Mecca and Husein was appointed in 1908 in his place. He at first showed a semblance of zeal on behalf of the suzerain Turks, but in reality desired the emancipa- tion of the emirate of Mecca. He openly pursued an anti-Turkish policy from about 1913, and by 1916, seconded by able sons, had become the de facto power in the Hejaz, with wide influence outside. In June 1916, after the success of the Arab revolt against the Turks under his leadership, he assumed the title of " Sultan of Arabia," but later in the year, with the approval of the Allies, he was proclaimed " King of the Hejaz," a title indicating more accurately the extent of his territorial rule. In Aug. 1916 he issued a proclamation to the Moslem world justi- fying his claim to independence. King Husein showed consider- able zeal for administrative reform in the Hejaz, notably in the public works, health, postal and telegraphic, and customs de- partments. He was present at a banquet which he gave to the representatives of the foreign Powers at Jidda, Feb. 1919, to celebrate the victorious conclusion of the war, and in other ways showed himself not averse to intercourse with non-Moslem Europeans. His four sons were the Emirs 'Ali, 'Abdulla, Faisal and Zeid (see ARABIA).
HUTCHINSON, SIR JONATHAN (1828-1913), English surgeon (see 14.13), died at Haslemere June 23 1913.
HUTIER, OSKAR VON (1857- ), Prussian general, was born Aug. 27 1857 at Erfurt. In command of the ist Div. of the Prussian Guards he played a prominent part in the battles which attended the German advance in Aug. 1914. In 1915 he was placed in command of the XXI. Army Corps, and in Jan. 1917 of the Army Group (Armeeabteilung) D. On April 27 he took over the command of the VIII. Army with part of which he occupied Riga. In Dec. 1917 he was transferred to the
