LOGIC 783 mind itself to knowledge may lead to a more concrete and yet not less exact system of the forms of knowledge, if there be taken into account tiie real character of the opera tion by which such contribution is made. Thus in the logic of Ulrici, from the view of thought as essentially the distinguishing faculty, by which defiuiteness is given to the elements entering into knowledge, there follows not simply an iteration of the principle that thought must not contra dict itself, but a systematic evolution of the fundamental relations involved in the action of thought, in which the more specifically logical products, the notion, judgment, and reasoning, have a determinate place assigned to them. Not only, then, may quite distinct provinces be assigned to logic by thinkers who start with the same idea of thought as contributing to knowledge, but, as may well be imagined, the treatment of special logical problems presents a most bewildering variety. The nature of judgment, the principle cf reasoning, the characteristics of thought which is in accordance with logical rule, will be viewed differently according to the special interpretation put upon the func tions of the subjective factor in knowledge. Here again we find that the really influential fact in the determination of the province and method of logical science is a general philosophic conception of knowledge or thought. 1 4. There remains yet one method by which a clear and sufficient definition of the province and function of logic may be attainable. It may be that the separation of logic from other philosophic disciplines has come about his torically, and that the assignment to logic of a special body of problems and a special kind of treatment is due to the accidents of its development. We might therefore hope to gain from a comparative survey of the field of logic, as that has been historically marked out, some definite view not only respecting the specific problems of logical theory, but also regarding the grounds for the isolated treatment of them. That in the history of logic there should be found a certain continuity of doctrine and development may, however, be compatible with entire absence of a common body of received logical matter, and the result of an historical research may be little more than a statement of distinct conceptions regarding the nature and province of the science, leading to the inclusion of very distinct materials within its scope. It requires but a superficial investigation of that which at various intervals has pre sented itself as logical theory to arrive at the conclusion that the differences in general spirit and in the mass of details far outbalance any agreement as to a few detaehed doctrines and technical symbols. If the survey were limited even to the period preceding the attempts at radical refor mation of philosophy in general, and of logic as included therein, to the period in which the Aristotelian doctrines, as they may be called, formed the common basis of logical treatment, we should be able to detect differences of such a kind as to indicate radically distinct fundamental views. The scholastic logic, which, even by itself, cannot be regarded as one theory with unimportant modifications, is most falsely described as Aristotelian. The technical terminology, the general idea and plan, and some of the formal details are certainly due to the Aristotelian analysis of reasoned knowledge, but in spirit, in ruling principles, and in the mass of details the method of the scholastic logic is alien to that of Aristotle. It will be shown later that the Aristotelian analysis is saturated with the notions and aims of the Aristotelian metaphysics and general theory of knowledge, and that on this account alone, apart from 1 In Rosenkranz, Die Modijlcationen der Logik abydeitet aus clem Begrijf dcs Denkens (1846), a similar conclusion is illustrated by an elaborate classification of possible modifications of the view of logic. Compare also Braniss, Die Logik in ihrem Vcrhiiltniss zur Philosophic geschichtlich betrachtct (1823). the introduction of many foreign ingredients, from Stoic, Arab, and Byzantine sources, into the scholastic system, an important difference must subsist between the original doctrine and that which presents itself as but its historical development. Even more radical is the divergence of modern logic from the Aristotelian ideal and method. Tke thinker who claimed for logic a special pre-eminence among sciences because "since Aristotle it has not had to retrace a single step, and to the present day has not been able to make one step in advance," 2 has him self, in his general modification of all philosophy, placed logic on so new a basis that the only point of connexion retained by it in his system with the Aristotelian may be not unfairly described as the community of subject. Both deal in some way with the principles and methods of human thinking, but as their general views of the constitution of thought are diverse, little agreement is to be found in the special treatment of its logical aspect. So when a later writer prefaces his examination of logical principles with the declaration that " logic is common ground on which the partisans of Hartley and of Reid, of Locke and of Kant, may meet and join hands," 3 we are not unprepared for the result that, with a few unimportant exceptions, his views of logical principle coincide with those of no recognized pre decessor in the same field, diverge widely from either the currently received or the genuine Aristotelian doctrines, and lead to a totally new distribution, in mass and detail, of the body of logical theorems and discussions. Such divergence is, indeed, most intelligible. If one reflects on the signi ficance which would be attached in any one of these logical systems, of Aristotle, of Kant, of Mill, to the universal or universalizing element of thought, and on the fact that such universal must manifest itself as the characteristic feature in all the important products of thinking, the notion, the judgment, the syllogism, the conclusion is inevitable that difference of view in respect to the essence must make itself felt in difference of treatment of details. The ulti mate aim of proof, and the general nature of the methods of proof, must appear differently according as the accepted ground is the Aristotelian conception of nature and thought, the Kantian theory of cognition, or subjective empiricism. If, adopting a simpler method, one were to inspect a fair proportion of the more extensive recent works on logic, the conclusion drawn would be probably the same, that, while the matters treated show a slight similarity, no more than would naturally result from the fact that thought is the subject analysed, the diversity in mode of treatment is so great that it would be impossible to select by comparison and criticism a certain body of theorems and methods, and assign to them the title of logic. That such works as those of Trendelenburg, Ueberweg, Ulrici, Lotze, Sigwart, Wundt, Bergmann, Schuppe, De Morgan, Boole, Jevous, and these are but a selection from the most recent, treat of notions, judgments, and methods of reasoning, gives to them indeed a certain common character; but what other feature do they possess in common? In tone, in method, in aim, in fundamental principles, in extent of field, they diverge so widely as to appear, not so many different expositions of the same science, but so many different sciences. In short, looking to the chaotic state of logical text-books at the present time, one would bo inclined to say that there does not exist anywhere a recognized, currently received body of speculations to which the title logic can be unambiguously assigned, and that we must therefore resign the hope of attaining by any empirical consideration of the received doctrine a precise determination of the nature and limits of logical theory. 2 Kant, Kritik, Vorrede, p. 13. 3 Mill, System of Logic, i. p. 13.
