NEPAL 341 supply of sal, sisu, and other valuable forest trees ; and the jungles abound with acacias, mimosas, cotton tree (Bombax), dak (Butea frondosa), large bamboos, rattans, palms, and numerous ferns and orchids. On the Chiriyaghati range the common Pinus longifolia grows freely. Tea can be grown on the borders of this and the next zone at a height of from 2000 to 4000 feet. The middle zone supplies rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, ginger, turmeric, chillies, potatoes, Cucurbitacese, pine apples, and many varieties of European fruits, vegetables, and flowers. The forests contain tree rhododendrons, Pinus longifolia, oaks, chestnuts, walnuts, maples, hill bamboos, wild cherry, pear, allies of the tea plant, paper plants (Daphne}, roses, and many other inhabitants of temperate climes, with various orchids, ferns, and wild flowers. In the alpine zone exist Coniferx of many kinds, junipers, yew, box, hollies, birch, dwarf rhododendrons, and the usual alpine flora. The wild animals follow a similar distribution, and the following typical species may be mentioned. In the lowest zone are found the tiger, leopards, wolves, hyaenas, and jackals, the elephant and rhinoceros, the gaur (Gavaeus gaurus), gayal (Gavaeus frontalis), wild buffalo or arna, many species of deer, and the black bear (Ursus labiatus). Among the birds are found the pea-fowl, francolins, wild jungle fowl, and the smaller vultures, &c. In the middle zone there are leopards the Himalayan black bear (Ursus tibetanus), the wild dog, cats of many sorts, squirrels, hares, porcupines, the pangolin, and some species of deer and antelope. Among the birds are the larger vultures and eagles, the fowl pheasants (Gallophasis), chukor, hill partridges, &c. In the alpine zone are found the true bear (Ursus isabellinus, or brown bear), the yak, musk deer, wild goats and sheep, marmots, &c. Among the birds are the eagle-vulture (Gypaetus), the blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), snow pheasant (Tetraogallus hima- layensis), snow partridge (Lerwa nivicolo the horned and crested pheasants, &c. Geese, ducks, waders of all sorts, and other migratory birds are found in abundance in the two lower zones. The lowest zone in some directions abounds in fossils ; and deposits of lignite, and even of true coal, are met with, the latter notably at a spot south of Palpa. The middle zone is rich in limestone and marbles, and abounds with minerals, such as iron, copper, zinc, lead, and sulphur. Copper is found near the surface in many places, and there are remains of mines both at Markhu and in the great valley of Nepal. Mineral springs, both hot and cold, are numerous. Traces of silver, and also of gold, have been found in the alpine zone. The races occupying Nepal are very numerous. To the north, inhabiting the higher mountains and valleys, dwell the Bhotiyas or Tibetans. To the west lie the Gurungs and Magars. The Murmis, Gorkhalis, and Newars occupy the central parts ; and the Kiratis, Limbus, and Lepchas occupy the eastern districts. Besides these there are many small tribes residing in the terai and some other malarious districts, known as Daris, Bhramus, Kumhas, Manjis, &c., but generally classed together by the Nepalese as Aoulias, or dwellers in the malarious or aoul districts. These are probably descendants of immigrants from the lower castes of Hindus, occupying the borderlands of the terai. Among the forests of the lower eastern region are also to be found some small savage tribes, knovn as Chepangs and Kusundas. All the races except the Gorkhalis and Aoulias are of a decidedly Mongolian appearance, being generally short and robust, and having flat faces, oblique eyes, yellow com plexions, straight black hair, and comparatively hairless faces. The Newars, according to the Vam^dvall or native history, trace their descent from the races of Bengal, but this is rendered more than doubtful both by their appear ance and language. The Gorkhalis (Gorkhas or Ghoor- khas) are descendants of the Brahmans and Kajputs who were driven out of Hindustan by the Moslems, and took refuge in the western hilly lands, where they ultimately became the dominant race. As a rule they still retain traces of their descent in face and figure, though they have become much mixed up with the other races by intermarriage. The Bhotiyas, Newars, Limbus, Keratis, and Lepchas are Re- all Buddhists, but their religion has become so mixed up ligions. with Hinduism that it is now hardly recognizable. The Newars have entirely abandoned the monastic institutions of Buddhism, and have in great measure adopted the rules of caste, though even these sit but lightly upon them. They burn their dead, eat the flesh of buffaloes, goats, sheep, ducks, and fowls, and drink beer and spirits. The Gorkhalis, Magars, and Gurungs are Hindus, but the last two are by no means strict in the observance of their religion, though there are some peculiarities which they carefully preserve. Thus, for instance, the Magars will eat pork but not buffalo s flesh, whereas the Gurungs eat the buffalo but not the hog. The various races have all separate languages, or at Lan- least dialects. The Gorkhalis use Parbatiya, a modern guages. dialect of Sanskrit, which is also used by the western tribes. The Newars have a distinct language and alphabet, or rather alphabets, for three are known to their pandits, though only one is now in use. Their language greatly resembles the Tibetan, but is now corrupted with many Sanskrit words. The Bhotiyas use the Tibetan language and alphabet. There are no public schools nor provision for education ; Educa- but the children of all well-to-do people are taught by the tion. family priests or their parents ; and some of the higher classes send their children to be educated at Patna, Benares, or Calcutta, so that many of them speak English fluently. The bulk of the labouring classes is quite illiterate. The modern literature of the country is undeserving of Litera- notice, being of the most frivolous description ; but Nepal ture - is a perfect storehouse of ancient Sanskrit literature, and some of the oldest MSS. in that language as yet known to scholars have been found there. The portion of Nepal, exclusive of the terai, which is Route open to Europeans is the "valley of Nepal," containing into the capital of the country, and a few adjacent smaller P a valleys. There is only one means of access used by Europeans, and this indeed is in general resorted to by the natives, as the other routes to the capital are longer and far more difficult. The road runs nearly north from Segowli, passing through the terai and sal forests, to Bichiakori ; then through the beds of mountain streams, through a pass in the Chiriyaghati range, and through another sal forest, to Hetoura ; thence by a wide and good road to Bhimphedi at the foot of the Sisaghuri range of hills. So far the route is practicable for carts and baggage animals, but from this point the road is a mere rugged footpath over the mountains, through the Chitlong valley- and over the Chandragiri range. The distance from Segowli to Kathmandu is 90 miles. The valley in extreme length from east to west is about 20 miles, and in breadth from north to south about 15. The surrounding hills vary in height from 6000 to 9720 feet, the level of the valley itself being about 4500 feet above the sea. Tradition has it that Nepal was once a lake, and appearances are in favour of this view. It is crossed longitudinally by a low limestone range, through which the waters have gradually forced a passage, and in
