234 PLUTARCH he illustrates by citing fifteen fine verses from Menander ( 5). The uselessness of indulging in grief is pointed out, death being a debt to all and not to be regarded as an evil ( 10-12). Plato s doctrine is cited ( 13) that the body is a burden and an impediment to the soul. Death may be annihilation, and therefore the dead are in the same category as the unborn ( 15). The lamenting a death because it is untimely or premature has something of selfish ness in it ( 19), besides that it only means that one has arrived sooner than another at the end of a common journey. If a death is more grievous because it is untimely, a new born infant s death would be the most grievous of all ( 23). One who has died early may have been spared many woes rather than have been deprived of many blessings ; and, after all, to die is but to pay a debt due to the gods when they ask for it ( 28). Examples are given of fortitude and resignation under such affliction ( 33). If, says the author in conclusion, there is a heaven for the good hereafter, be sure that such a son will have a place in it. Precepts about Health commences as a dialogue, and extends to some length as a lecture. It is technical and difficult throughout, and contains but little that falls in with modern ideas. Milk, he says, should be taken for food rather than for drink, and wine should not be indulged in after hard work or mental effort, for it does but tend to increase the bodily disturbance ( 17). Better than purges or emetics is a temperate diet, which induces the bodily functions to act of themselves ( 20). Another wise saying is that idleness does not conduce to health (oW dXrjfles eVri rb ^aov uytaiiffiv robs rjffvx tav &-yovTa.s, 21), and yet another that a man should learn by experience his bodily capabilities without always consulting a physician ( 26). Advice to the Married is addressed to his newly wedded friends Pollianus and Eurydice. It is simply and plainly written, and con sists chiefly of short maxims and anecdotes, with but few citations from the poets. The Banquet of the Seven Wise Men is a longer treatise, one of the several "Symposia" or imaginary conversations that have come down to us. It is supposed to be given by Periander in the public banqueting-room (ea-riar6piov) near the harbour of Corinth (Lechaeum) on the occasion of a sacrifice to Aphrodite. The whole party consisted of "more than twice seven," the friends of the principal guests being also present. Like Plato s Sijmposium this treatise takes the form of a narrative of what was said and done, the narrator being one Diocles, a friend of Periander s, who professes to give Nicarchus a correct account as having been present. The dinner was simple, and in contrast with the usual splendour of " tyrants " ( 4). The conversation turns on various topics ; Solon is credited with the remarkable opinion that " a king or tyrant is most likely to become celebrated if he makes a democracy out of a monarchy" ( 7). There is much playful banter throughout, but neither the wit nor the wisdom seems of a very high standard. Solon delivers a speech on food being a necessity rather than a pleasure of life ( 16), and one Gorgus, a brother of the hoat, comes in to relate how he has just shaken hands with Arion brought across the sea on the back of a dolphin ( 18), which brings on a discussion about the habits of that creature. Among the speakers are ^Esop, Anacharsis, Thales, Chilo, Cleobulus, and one Chersias, a poet. A short essay On Superstition contains a good many quotations from the poets. It opens with the wise remark that ignorance about the gods, which makes the obstinate man an atheist, also begets credulity in weak and pliant minds. The atheist fears nothing because he believes nothing ; the superstitious man believes there are gods, but that they are unfriendly to him ( 2). A man who fears the gods is never free from fear, whatever lie may do or whatever may befall him. He extends his fears beyond his death, and believes in the "gates of hell," and its fires, in the darkness, the ghosts, the infernal judges, and what not ( 4). The atheist does not believe in the gods ; the superstitious man wishes he did not, but fears to disbelieve ( 11). On the whole, this is a most interesting treatise. Mr King has given a translation of it, and of the next five essays. On Isis ami Osiris is a rather long treatise on Egyptian symbolism, interesting chiefly to students of Egyptology. It gives an exposi tion of the strange myths and superstitions of this ancient solar cult, including a full account of the great antagonist of Osiris, Typhon, or the Egyptian Satan. Plutarch thus lays down the Zoroastrian theory of good and bad agencies ( 45) : "if nothing can happen without cause, and good cannot furnish cause for evil, it follows that the nature of evil, as of good, must have an origin and principle of its own." On the Cessation of Oracles is a dialogue, discussing the reasons why divine inspiration seemed to be withdrawn from the old seats of prophetic lore. The real reason of their decline in popularity is probably very simple ; when the Greek cities became Roman provinces the fashion of consulting oracles fell off, as unsuited to the more practical influences of Roman thought and Roman politics. The question is discussed whether there are such inter mediate beings as demons, who according to Plato communicate the will of the gods to men, and the prayers and vows of men to the gods. The possibility of a plurality of worlds is entertained, and of the planets being more or less composed of the essence of the five elements, fire, ether, earth, air, and water ( 37). The whole treatise is metaphysical, but it concludes with remarks on the exhalations at Delphi having different effects on different people and at different times. The ancient notion doubtless was that the vapour was the breath of some mysterious being sent up from the under-world. On the Pythian Responses, u-hy no longer given in Verse, is also a dialogue, the first part of which is occupied mainly with conver sation and anecdotes about the statues and other offerings at Delphi. It is rather an amusing essay, and may be regarded as a kind of appendix to the last. The theory propounded ( 24) is that verse was the older vehicle of philosophy, history, and religion, but that plain prose has become the later fashion, and therefore that oracles are now generally delivered " in the same form as laws speak to citizens, kings reply to their subjects, and scholars hear their teachers speak." Discredit too was brought on the verse-oracle by the facility with which it was employed by impostors ( 25). Moreover, verse is better suited to ambiguity, and oracles now-a-days have less need to be ambiguous ( 28). On the E at Delphi is an inquiry why that letter or symbol was written on or in the Delphic temple. Some thought it represented the number five, others that it introduced the inquiry of oracle- seekers, If so-and-so was to be done ; while one of the speakers, Ammonius, decides that it means E?, " thou art," an address to Apollo containing the predication of existence ( 17). On the Face on the Moon s Disk is a long and curious if somewhat trifling speculation, yet not without interest from its calculations of the sizes and the distance from earth of the sun and moon ( 10), and from the contrast between ancient lunar theories and modern mathematics. The cause of the moon s light, its peculiar colour, the possibility of its being inhabited, and many kindred questions are discussed in this dialogue, the beginning and end of which are alike abrupt. Some of the "guesses at truth" are very near the mark, as when it is suggested ( 21-2) that the moon, like the earth, contains deep recesses into which the sun s light does not descend, and the appearance of the "face" is nothing but the shadows of streams or of deep ravines. On the Late Vengeance of the Deity is a dialogue consequent on a supposed lecture by Epicurus. An objection is raised to the ordinary dealings of providence, that long delayed punishment encourages the sinner and disappoints the injured, the reply to which is ( 5) that the god sets man an example to avoid hasty and precipitate resentment, and that he is willing to give time for repentance ( 6). Moreover, he may wish to await the birth of good progeny from erring parents ( 7). Another fine reflexion is that sin has its own punishment in causing misery to the sinner, and thus the longer the life the greater is the share of misery ( 9). The essay concludes with a long story about one Thespesius, and the treatment which he saw, during a trance, of the souls in the other world. On Fate discusses the law of chance as against the overruling of providence. This treatise ends abruptly ; the point of the argument is that both fate and providence have their due influence in mundane affairs ( 9), and that all things are constituted for the best. On the Genius of Socrates is a long essay, and, like so many of the rest, in the form of a dialogue. The experiences of one Timairlms, and his supernatural visions in the cave of Trophonius, are related at length in the Platonic style ( 22), and the true nature of the Saipoves is revealed to him. They are the souls of the just, who still retain regard for human affairs and assist the good in their efforts after virtue ( 28). The dialogue ends with an interesting narrative of the concealment of Pelopidas and some of the Theban conspirators against the Spartans in the house of Charon. On Exile is a fine essay, rendered the more interesting from its numerous quotations from the poets, including several from the Phccnissx,. Man is not a plant that grows only in one soil ; he belongs to heaven rather than to earth, and wherever he goes there are the same sun, the same seasons, the same providence, the same laws of virtue and justice ( 5). There is no discredit in being driven from one s country ; Apollo himself was banished from heaven and condemned to live for a time on earth ( 18). The Consolation to his Wife, on the early death of their only daughter Timoxena ( 7), is a feeling and sensible exhortation to moderate her grief. Nine books of Symposiaca extend to a great length, discussing inquiries (^po/SA^ara) on a vast number of subjects. The general treatment of these, in which great literary knowledge is displayed, is not unlike the style of Athemeus. lit is, of course, impossible here to give any summary of the questions propounded. TJic Amorous Man is a dialogue of some length, describing a conversation on the nature of love held at Helicon, pending a
quinquennial feast of the Thespians, who specially worshipped