and the disposition of the tentacular arms (fig. 23) is the same in Braehiopoda and Polyzoa. The nephridia (oviducts) of Terebratula have a position and relations similar to those of the nephridia (geni tal ducts) of Phoronis. The chief difference between Polyzoa and Brachiopoda consists in the special development of the margin of the cupped end of the body, into which the lophophore is sunk, as in Pedi- cellina (see fig. 15, B, c). This up-standing margin is enormously
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| Fig. 23. | Fig. 24. |
| Fig. 23.—Lophophore and epistome of young Terebratulina, showing the horseshoe shape; the arms are turned in the direction the reverse of that taken by the lophophore-arms in Polyzoa (see fig. 4). In later growth they will become spirally coiled. (After Morse.) | |
| Fig. 24.—Larva of the Brachiopod Argiope (from Gegenbaur, after Kowalewsky). m, setigerous lobe; b, setæ; d, enteron. | |
increased in the Brachiopoda, so as to form a voluminous hood or collar, which surrounds the large tentacular arms, and forms a pro tective chamber for them. It is notched right and left so as to be divided into two lobes, and on its surface is developed a horny or a calcareous shell in two corresponding moieties. Until recently it was held (see Lankester, 17) that both Brachiopoda and Polyzoa were modifications of the Molluscan type, and the Brachiopods collar was identified with the pallial fold of Mollusca. The resem blance of the two structures must now be considered as purely hoinoplastic, and not as having any real morphological (homo genetic) significance. The larvae of the Brachiopoda (figs. 24, 25) are as exceptional and difficult of interpretation as those of Polyzf-a, but no attempt has been yet made to show that the one can be reduced to a common form with the other. The three segments presented by some Brachiopod lame (fig. 25) have been compared to the segments of Chsetopod worms by some writers ; and these, together with the presence of sets?, have been regarded as indicative of affinity between the Brachiopoda and Chsetopoda (Morse). But it is sufficient, in order to dispose of this suggestion, to point out that the segments of the Chsetopoda follow one another along the primary oro-anal axis, whilst those, of Brachiopoda are developed along an axis at right angles to this (Caldwell). The Brachiopoda must be classified together with the Polyzoa
Fig. 25.—Surface views of ten stages in the development of Terebratulina, showing the free-swimming larva and its mode of fixation (after Morse). c, lophophoral segment; th, thoracic segment; p, peduncular segment; ds, deciduous setæ.
and Sipunculoidea in a phylum (Podaxonia) characterized by the development of this secondary axis. Bibliography. (1) J. Vaughan Thompson, Zoological Re?earclia, Memoir v., "On Polyzoa, a new animal, an inhabitant of some Zoophytes," &c., 1830; (2) Ehrenberg, Abhandl. d. k. Akad. d. Katuriciss. in Berlin, 1834; (3) Henri Milne- Edwards, llfche.rches anatomiques, jihysiolorjiques, et zoologiques sur les 1 olypifrs lie France, Svo, 1841-44 ; (4) Allman, The llritifh Freshwater Folyzoa, Hay Society, 1856 ; (5) Jolliet, " Bryozoaires des cotes de France," Arch. d. Zool. experim.., vol. vi., 1877; (6) Caldwell, Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1883; of the " Challenger ," "Report on the Polyzoa," vol. x. ; (10) Hincks. liritifh Marine Polyzoa, London, 1880; (11) Smit t, Kritisk Forterkiiing ofrer SkaniU- natiens Hafs Bnjozoa, 18fi4-<>8 ; (12) Heller, Die Kryozoen d. Ailriatuchtn Mt eres, 1867; (13) Ehlers, " Hypophorella expanse," Ab/iandl. (/. kb nig. Gefellsch. Gottingen, xxi., 1876; (14) Karrois, Annales dcs Sciences A ature/les, vol. ix., 1880; (15) Half our, Comparative Embryology, London, 1880, vol. i., p. 242 ; (16) Morse, "On the Systematic Position of "the Brachiopoda, Boston Soc, at. Hist., vol. xv., 1873; (17) Lankester, "Remarks on the Affinities of Hhabdopleura," Quart. Jour. Mia: Set ., vol. xiv., mw series, 1874; (18) Haimer, "On Loxo- soma," Quart. Jour, ificr. Sri.. April 1885. (E. R. L.)
POMBAL, SEBASTIAN JOSEPH DE CARVALHO E MELLO, MARQUIS DE (1699-1782), the greatest statesman Portugal has produced in modern times, was the son of a fairly wealthy country gentleman, Emmanuel de Carvalho, and was born at Soure, near Pombal, on 13th May 1699. He was educated at the university of Coimbra, and was then for a short time in the army, but it was not until he was nearly forty and had been married some years that he received his first public appointment, and was sent as minister to London in 1739. There he studied English administration, but never learnt the English language, and was promoted to the embassy at A r ienna by King John V. in 1745, and recalled in 1750 to become minister for foreign affairs. Before he reached Lisbon John was dead, and his successor King Joseph at once placed entire confidence in him. He soon began to show his strength : in 1751 he checked the Inquisition, by allowing no executions without the royal permission ; he improved the navy, the police, and the finances, and freed the Indians of the Brazils from slavery. The great earthquake of Lisbon on 1st November 1755 showed him in his true greatness ; when the king asked him despairingly what he should do, he answered briefly, " Bury the dead and feed the living," and by his calmness at that frightful moment gained an ascendency over the royal mind which lasted till Joseph s death. His power was at once used to check the Roman Catholic Church, which, with the Jesuits and the Inquisition, had eaten the life out of the country, and in 1757 the Jesuits were ex pelled from court (see JESUITS, vol. xiii. p. 654). The i Count d Oeyras, as he was now made, then devoted him- self to internal administration ; he founded the Oporto Wine Company, encouraged sericulture, rebuilt Lisbon, and improved on the Jesuit system of education, and in 1762 showed his concurrence in the hereditary policy of Portugal in helping England against Spain, when the Family Compact had united the interests of Spain and France. On the 3rd September 1769 an attempt on tha king s life was frustrated by the count, who was in 1770 made marquis of Pombal. He remained in power till the death of the king in 1777, but the new sovereign, Queen Maria, at once accepted his resignation, and persecuted him till his death in 1782. POMEGRANATE. The pomegranate (Pwiica Grann- tum) is of exceptional interest by reason of its structure, its history, and its utility. It forms a tree of small stature, or a bash with opposite, shining, lance-shaped leaves, from the axils of some of which proceed the brilliant scarlet flowers. These are raised on a short stalk, and consist of a thick fleshy cylindrical or bell-shaped calyx tube, with five to seven short lobes at the top. From the throat of the calyx proceed five to seven roundish, crumpled, scarlet or crimson petals, and below them very numerous slender stamens. The pistil consists of two rows of carpels placed one above another, both rows embedded in, and partially inseparate from, the inner surface of the calyx tube. The styles are confluent into one filiform thread. The fruit, which usually attains the size of a large orange, consists of a hard leathery rind, which is the enlarged calyx tube, XIX. --56
