678 PRESBYTEEIANISM It can now be seen how far Calvin was able to carry out his theory. But for his life the theory, like those which preceded it, would probably have had no universal historical interest. Calvin s The course of events in Geneva had developed a theo- relations cratical feeling ; and the essence of a theocracy seemed gained when the citizens were summoned by tens in 1536 to swear the confession contained in Calvin s first Catechism (really an analysis of the Institutes). They swore as citizens, and those who refused lost their citizen ship. As soon, however, as Calvin attempted to make this a reality trouble followed. His ruling idea was dis cipline, and this was exercised against both the moral and the spiritual libertines, against those who objected to the discipline of manners and those who disliked sub mission to the confession. As the reins were drawn tighter these two bodies gained influence in the council, and inveighed against the new popedom. At length, in 1538, when Calvin, Farel, and Conrad refused to give the communion in a city which, as represented by the council, would not submit to church discipline, the storm broke out. The three preachers were banished, and Calvin re tired to Strasburg, This refusal of the sacrament is im portant as a matter of ecclesiastical history, because it is the essence of that whole system which Calvin subsequently introduced, and which rests on the principles that the church has the right to exclude those who, according to her judgment, appear unworthy, and that she is in no way subject to the state in matters of religion. For the present the state had refused to admit the claims of the church. Calvin laid down as the conditions of his return the recognition of the church s independence, the division of the town into parishes, and the appointment by the council of elders in each parish for excommunication. The feeling, however, was for three years too strong ; the banishment was confirmed on the specific ground that the insistence on excommunication was an attempt at despotic power. Calvin s absence left the town a prey to anarchy : one party threatened to return to Romanism, another to give up their independence to Bern. It was felt to be a political necessity to recall Calvin, and in 1541 he returned on his own terms. Meanwhile he had been maturing and carrying out his system (Inst., iv. 8) in the French and Walloon churches in Strasburg. Church By the Ordonnances Ecclesiastiques de I fiylise de Geneve, organiza- which represent the terms on which Calvin consented to be pastor in Geneva and which were published on 20th November 1541 in the name of Almighty God by the syndics, the small and great councils, and the people, there are, as in the Institutes, the four orders, pastors, doctors, elders, deacons. (1) The pastors preach, administer the sacraments, and, in conjunction with the elders, exercise discipline. In their totality they form the "venerable compagnie." It was the duty of each minister, with the elders of his parish, to be diligent in house-to-house visita tion, to catechize, and, generally, to supervise family life. After being approved as to knowledge and manner of life, and ordained by the pastors already in office, and settled in a fixed charge by the magistrate with the consent of the congregation, the newly-made pastor vowed to be true in office, faithful to the church system, obedient to the laws and the civil government (with reservation of freedom in doctrine and the rights of office; compare Becket s "saving our order " ), and, in especial, to exercise discipline with out fear or favour. (2) The doctors teach the faithful in sound learning and guard the purity of doctrine. They too are subject to "discipline." (3) The work of the elders (" Anciens, Commis ou Deputez par la Seigneurie ou Consistoire ") Calvin regarded as the sinew and essential substance of the system. They were the bond of union Geneva. between church and state, and therefore the most important element of the theocratic government. Their business was to supervise daily life, to warn the disorderly, and to give notice to the consistory of cases requiring church chastise ment. They were nominated by the small council and confirmed by the " two hundred." Two were chosen from the small council, four from the " sixty," eight from the "two hundred"; some were to live in each quarter, that the whole might be well supervised. After a year s pro bation an elder might be dismissed or confirmed by the small council. If confirmed, he held office for life. To form the " consistoire " or church court, all the elders, with the pastors, met every Sunday under the presidency of one of the four syndics. This court was erected purely as a means to secure discipline. It could award punishments up to exclusion from the sacrament. It had, too, great authority (with appeal to the civil Government) in marriage questions. An officer of the Government was placed at its disposal to summon persons before it ; should they refuse to appear, the Government itself compelled attendance. Moreover, the consistoire was bound to give notice of every excommunication to the Government, which attached to it certain civil penalties : " et que tout cela ne face en telle sorte que les ministres n ayent aucune jurisdiction civile et que par ce consistoire ne soit rien derogue a 1 authorite de la seigneurie, ni a la justice ordinaire, ainsi que la puissance divine demeure en son entier." The inevitable quarrel arose in 1546-53, when the council overruled the decision of the consistory in a ques tion of excommunication. The deniers of the autonomy of the church referred to the clause which laid down that excommunications were to be notified to the small council; but Calvin argued that the aim of this was merely that in extreme cases the Government should support the action of the church, not criticize it, and he won the victory. His position gradually became stronger. In 1557 banishment Avas awarded to any one who contemned the sacrament or the sentence of the consistoire. In 1560 it was ordered that the names of the elders should be published, honoris causa ; and in the same year the appearance of state con trol, by the presence of a syndic with his staff of office at the consistoire, was done away with. He was present, but not officially as a syndic, and without his staff. It should be noticed (1) that the provision that in cer tain cases the censure of the consistoire should be followed by civil penalties is in keeping with the theocratic view. So too is the provision that members of political bodies alone were eligible to the eldership. The rights of the church as distinct from the state authority were preserved by the condition that the meeting of the consistoire was summoned by the ministers. (2) In the Institutes ecclesi astical power is ascribed to the congregation, to be exer cised by foreknowledge of and in agreement with the acts of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction. But in the Ordonnances the congregation as a unit is passed over in silence as regards discipline and the choice of elders. (3) It must be remembered that Calvin never professed to regard this as a perfect plan, but as good as under the circumstances he could hope for. It was a compromise, and showed the practical character of the man. If he could secure the essence of his longed-for church discipline he was willing to waive the question of privilege. To sum up the characteristics of early Presbyterianism (1) It is an organization for discipline. Whatever else they may be, the elders of the Reformed churches are, primarily, censors of morals. (2) The institution claims the triple ground of Scripture, history, expediency. (3) The Lutheran doctrine of universal priesthood is wanting. (4) No voice is raised for the choice of elders by the
congregation. As to eligibility there is as little anxiety :