PRISON DISCIPLINE 757 exercised, in some cases in England and Ireland, with the consent of the accused, or, in the case of a child, of the parent or guardian. The discretionary powers of summary courts are wide, ranging in many cases from dismissal (although the charge is proved) to payment of damages and costs, or fine, or limited imprisonment, and in the case of a male child with private whipping either in addition to or instead of any other punishment ; and whipping in addi tion to other punishment may be imposed by all courts on the trial of male offenders under sixteen for the majority of offences. For the very important power of relegating juvenile offenders to reformatory schools and vagrant and neglected children to industrial schools see the separate article, REFORMATORY AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS (q.v.). Juvenile offenders and children while detained in re formatory or industrial schools are not subject to prison discipline, but the rules for the management and dis cipline of the schools and the detention in them may be enforced by imprisonment. Very beneficial results as re gards the diminution of crimes are undoubtedly obtained by various institutions, both public and private. The possible criminal is removed from evil associations while still amenable to better influences ; and while still malle able he is taught to labour honestly with his hands. Prison statistics, more especially of the convict prisons, show a marked decrease in the number of youthful offenders in durance, and it is reasonble to suppose that from the causes above mentioned there is a gradual stoppage in the supply. In the ten years between 1871 and 1881 the number in custody of ages between fifteen to twenty-four fell from 2948 to 1957, and this although the general population had increased four millions. The same reduction has shown itself as regards the number of the same ages in local prisons ; and it is clear that the improvement is general. Uniformity in prison discipline is now general through out the United Kingdom. The Prisons Act of 1877 also extended to Scotland and Ireland, and in both those countries the system of imprisonment for terms of two years and under has been assimilated to that in force in England. As regards penal servitude, convicts pass through the same stages or periods ; but Scottish convicts, after undergoing their separate confinement in the general prison at Perth, have been drafted into the English public works prisons. Of late there has been a movement towards securing some of the advantages of convict labour for works north of the Tweed, and it is probable that harbour works will soon be undertaken at one or more points on the Scottish coast. For Ireland, the progressive periods are passed in that country, separate confinement in Mountjoy prison, public works at Spike Island. The administration of prisons has also been assimilated in Great Britain and Ireland, and has been centralized in each capital under the authority of the state. Boards of prison commissioners in London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, and acting under the immediate orders of the executive, control all local prison affairs, including finance, victualling, clothing, the appoint ment of officers of all grades, and the discipline of prisoners. The English convicts are still managed by an independent board called the directors of convict prisons, but both commissioners and directors have the same chairman and chief, while the staff of clerks and accountants and store keepers in a word, the whole administrative machinery is identical for both. The welfare of the inmates of all prisons is not, however, left entirely at the discretion of official managers. The local magistracy have still a certain jurisdiction in the local prisons ; through elected re presentatives styled "visiting committees," they constantly inspect the prisons and exercise supervision over their inmates. They have retained their power to punish and generally deal with all cases of aggravated misconduct. The functions exercised by these visiting committees might seem to constitute a dual authority in prison management. But so far the two powers have worked harmoniously and well. Since 1880 unofficial and unpaid visitors have also been appointed to undertake an inde pendent inspection of the convict prisons. This practice was introduced, not on account of any administrative failure in the system, but as a safeguard against possible abuses, and to strengthen public confidence. These visitors can give no orders, but they are empowered to make full inquiries into the state of the prisoners and the condition and discipline of the prison. The sum voted in 1883-84 for convict establishments in England was 414,463, but this includes 18,100 for expenditure in colonies where a few imperial convicts still survive, and grants in aid of colonial magistrates, police, and jails. The vote for local prisons in the same year was 481,852. The returns from male prisoners labour in the convict prisons in 1883-84 amounted to 248,995, 11s. 3d. Of this total, 121,956, 5s. 2d. represented the estimated value, by measurement, of labour on public works, and 42,159, 8s. 4d. more the value of prison buildings erected, while the earnings in manufactures amounted to 37,581, 8s. 8d. The balance was the farm and the work performed for the prisons. The female convicts labour amounted in the same year to 9933, 9s. 5d., half of which was in washing and manufactures. In the local prisons in England manufactures brought in 39,790, 3s. lid. The value of the labour on prison buildings was 24,510, 4s. 2d., and that in the service of the prisons 59,562, Os. 8d. The prison vote in Scotland for 1883-84 was 110,170, the returns from earnings 6000 ; in Ireland the vote was 145,689 and the earnings 4000. The above terms of expenditure include all outlay staff (superior and sub ordinate), maintenance, travelling expenses, &c. Most civilized nations have considered the question of prison discipline from time to time, and have endeavoured, but with varying degrees of earnestness, to conform to accepted modern ideas as to the proper method of dealing with criminals. The subject has also been dealt with at two international congresses, one of which assembled in London in 1873, and the other at Stockholm in 1878, when views were exchanged and matters of much interest discussed. It is proposed now to supplement the foregoing account of British prison discipline by a brief survey of the prison systems in force in the British dependencies and in various other countries-. British Colonies and India. The prison systems of most of the British colonies have been assimilated as far as possible to that in force in the mother country. In all the larger colonies there are convict prisons and local prisons, and in all cellular separation for the whole or part of the sentence is the rule. This is the case in the Australian colonies, in Tasmania, and in New Zealand. The prison system of Canada is advanced and enlightened. The numbers incarcerated are not great, and crime is not very prevalent. Six establishments suffice for the Dominion Kingston, St Vincent de Paul (for the province of Quebec), Halifax, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Dorchester. The last-named has replaced that at St John s. All these are cellular prisons ; and they receive prisoners of all categories, for trial and after sentence whatever the term. Females have a special quarter in each prison. Isolation is strictly carried out for all short sentences ; but for the longer labour is in association. A great deal of good work is turned out in the Canadian prisons. All the rolling stock for railways in Government hands, iron-work, clothing, and boots and shoes are produced at the various prisons, but not to an extent to allow all prisoners to be instructed in trades. Most of the prisons possess land in their vicinity which is tilled by the prisoners. There are no prisoners aid societies as yet in Ca..^da, although their formation has been earnestly recom mended. For the Cape of Good Hope there is a good prison at Cape Town. In Ceylon, since 1867, cellular separation has been enforced for the whole period of short sentences, and the first six months of long sentences. In Jamaica there are several kinds of prisons, but only the principal, the general penitentiary, has any number of separate sleeping cells. In India the jails number upwards of 230, with an indefinite number of small lock-ups. There is also the large convict depot at
Port Blair in the Andaman Islands. Very few of the Indian jails