822 PROPHET (1875, Eng. tr. 1877) is in form mainly a criticism of the traditional view of prophecy, and should therefore be compared with his Onderzoek and Godsdienst tan Israel. Most English books on the subject are more theological than histori cal, but a sketch of Hebrew pi opliecy in connexion with the history down to the close of the 8th century is Riven by W. K. Smith, The Prophet!, of Israel, Edin burgh, 1882. A useful commentary on the prophetical books in general forms two volumes of lieuss, La Bible (Paris, 1876); the special literature is referred to in the articles on the several prophets. The literature of the theological questions ri uinvted with prophecy is much too copious to be cited here ; lists will be found in several of the bucks already referred to. (V. K. S ) 2. Prophets in the Christian Church. The appearance of prophets in the first Christian communities is one proof of the strength of faith and hope by which these bodies were animated. An old prophecy (Joel iii. 1) had foretold that in the Messianic age the spirit of God would be poured out on every member of the religious community, and in point of fact it was the universal conviction of those who believed in Christ that they all possessed the Spirit of God. This Spirit, manifesting His presence in a variety of ways and through a variety of gifts, was to be the only ruling authority in the church. He raised up for Himself par ticular individuals, into whose mouths He put the word of God, and these were at first regarded as the true leaders of the congregations. We find accordingly that there were prophets in the oldest church, that of Jerusalem (Acts xi. 27 ; xv. 32), and again that there were " prophets and teachers" in the church at Antioch (Acts xiii. 1). These were not office-bearers chosen by the congregation, but preachers raised up by the Spirit and conferred as gifts on the church. When Paul says (1 Cor. xii. 28 cf. Eph. iv. 11), "God has set some in the church, first as apostles, second as prophets, third as teachers," he points to a state of things which in his time prevailed in all the churches both of Jewish and heathen origin. We here learn from Paul that the prophets occupied the second position in point of dignity ; and we see from another passage (1 Cor. xiv.) that they were distinguished from the teachers by their speaking under the influence of inspiration, not, however, like the " speakers in tongues," in unintelligible ejaculations and disconnected words, but in articulate, rational, edifying speech. Until recently it was impossible to form any distinct idea of the Christian prophets in the l>ost-apostolie age, not so much from want of materials as because what evidence existed was not sufficiently clear and connected. It was understood, indeed, that they had maintained their place in the churches till the end of the 2d century, and that the great conflict with what is known as Montanisrn had first proved fatal to them ; but a clear conception of their position and influence in the churches was not to be had. But the discovery, by Bryennios, of the ancient Christian work called AtSa^^ Tuiv StooWa ttTTocTToAwj/ has immensely extended the ran we of our knowledge, and has at the same time thrown a clear light on many notices in other sources which for want of proper interpretation had been previously neglected or in correctly understood. The most important facts known at present about the manner of life, the influence, and the history of the early Christian prophets are the following. (1) Down to the close of the 2d century the prophets (or prophetesses) were regarded as an essential element in a church possess ing the Holy Ghost. Their existence was believed in, and they did actually exist, not only in the catholic congrega tionsif the expression may be used but also in the Marcionite church and the Gnostic societies. Not a few Christian prophets are known to us by name ; as Agabus, Judas, and Silas in Jerusalem ; Barnabas, Simon Niger, &c., in Antioch ; in Asia Minor, the daughters of Philip Quadratus, Ammia, Polycarp, Melito, Montanus, Maximilla, and Pnscilla; in Rome, Hermas ; among the followers of Basilides, Barkabbas and Barkoph ; in the community of Apelles, Philumene, <fec. Lucian tells us that the impostor Peregrinus Proteus, in the time of Antoninus Pius, figured as a prophet in the Christian churches of Syria. (2) Till the middle of the 2d century the prophets were the regular preachers of the churches, without being attached to any particular congregation. While the "apostles" (i.e., itinerating missionaries) were obliged to preach from place to place, the prophets were at liberty either, like the teachers, to settle in a certain church or to travel from one to another. (3) In the time of Paul the form of prophecy was reasoned exhortation in a state of inspiration ; but very frequently the inspiration took the form of ecstasy the prophet lost control of himself, so that he did not remember afterwards what he had said. In the Gentile-Christian churches, under the influence of pagan associations, ecstasy was the rule. (4) With regard I to the matter of prophecy, it might embrace anything that was necessary or for the edification of the church. The prophets not only consoled and exhorted by the recital of what God had done and predictions of the future, but they uttered extempore thanksgivings in the congregational assemblies, and delivered special directions, which might extend to the most minute details, as, for example, the disposal of the church funds. (5) It was the duty of the prophets to follow in all respects the example of the Lord (tx LV TOVS Tpo-n-ovs TOV Kvpiov), and to put in practice what they preached. But an ascetic life was expected of them only when, like the apostles, they went about as missionaries, in which case the rules in Mat. x. applied to them. Whenever, on the contrary, they settled in a place they had a claim to a liberal maintenance at the hands of the congregation. The author of the AtSa;^ even compares them to the high priests of the Old Testament, and considers them entitled to the first- fruits of the Levitical law. In reality, they might justly I be compared to the priests in so far as they were the mouthpieces of the congregation in public thanksgiving. (6) Since prophets were regarded as a gift of God and as moved by the Holy Spirit, the individual congregation had no right of control over them. When anyone was ap proved as a prophet and exhibited the " conversation of tho Lord," no one was permitted to put him to the test or to criticize him. The author of the At8a^r/ goes so far as to assert that whoever does this is guilty of the sin against the Holy Ghost. (7) This unique position of the prophets could only be maintained so long as the original enthu siasm remained fresh and vigorous. From three quarters primitive Christian prophecy was exposed to danger, first, from the permanent officials of the congregation, who, in the interests of order, peace, and security could not but look with suspicion on the activity of excited prophets ; second, from the prophets themselves, in so far as an in creasing number of dishonest characters was found amongst them, whose object was to levy contributions on the churches ; l third, from those prophets who were filled with the stern spirit of primitive Christianity and imposed on churches, now becoming assimilated to the world, obliga tions which these were neither able nor willing to fulfil. It is from this point of view that we must seek to understand the so-called Montanistic crisis. Even the author of the AtSax?7 finds it necessary to defend the prophets who practised celibacy and strict asceticism against the depre ciatory criticism of church members. In Asia Minor there was already in the year 160 a party, called by Epiphanius " Alogi," who rejected all Christian prophecy. On the other hand, it was also in Asia Minor that there appeared along with Montanus those energetic prophetesses who charged the churches and their bishops and deacons with becoming secularized, and endeavoured to prevent Chris- 1 See Lucian s story about Peregrinus, and that chapter of the AiSax-fi where the author labours to establish criteria for distinguish
ing false prophets from true.