PROTOZOA 831 hydrogen and oxygen to form fat, sugar, and starch. Albumens and fats are not soluble in water and diffusible ; they have to be seized by the animal in the condition of more or less solid particles, and by chemical processes superinduced in the living protoplasm of the animal by the contact of these particles they are acted upon, chemic ally modified, and rendered diffusible. Hence the animal is provided with a mouth and a digestive cavity, and with organs of locomotion and prehension by which it may search out and appropriate its scattered nutriment. Further the albumens, fats, sugars, and starch which are the necessary food of an animal are not found in nature excepting as the products of the life of plants or of animals ; accord ingly all animals are in a certain sense parasitic upon either plants or other animals. It would therefore seem to be easy to draw the line between even the most minute unicellular plants and the similarly minute unicellular animals assigning those which feed on the albumens, &c., of other organisms by means of a mouth and digestive apparatus to the animal series, and those which can appro priate the elements of ammonia, nitrates, and carbonates to the plants. Such absolute distinctions lending themselves to sharp definitions have, however, no place in the organic world ; and this is found to be equally true whether we attempt to categorically define smaller groups in the classification of plants and animals or to indicate the boundaries of the great primary division which those familiar names imply. Closely allied to plants which are highly and specially developed as plants, and feed exclusively upon ammonia, nitrates, and carbonates, we find exceptionally modified kinds which are known as " insectivorous plants " and are provided with digestive cavities (the pitchers of pitcher- plants, &c.), and actually feed by acting chemically upon the albumens of insects which they catch in these diges tive receptacles. No one would entertain for a moment the notion that these insectivorous plants should be con sidered as animals. The physiological definition separat ing plant from animal breaks down in their case ; but the consideration of the probable history of their evolution as indicated by their various details of structure suffices at once to convince the most sceptical observer that they actually belong to the vegetable line of descent or family tree, though they have lost the leading physiological char acteristic which has dominated the structure of other plants. In this extreme case it is made very obvious that in grouping organisms as plants or as animals we are not called upon to apply a definition but to consider the multifarious evidences of historical evolution. And we find in the case of the Protozoa and the Protophyta that the same principle holds good, although, when dealing with extremely simple forms, it becomes much more diffi cult to judge of the genetic relationship of an organism in proportion as the number of detailed points of possible agreement with and divergence from other forms to which it may be supposed to be related are few. The feeding of plants upon carbonic acid is invariably accompanied by the presence of a peculiar green-colouring matter chlorophyll. In virtue of some direct or indirect action of this chlorophyll the protoplasm of the plant is enabled to seize the carbon of the mineral world the car bon which has sunk to the lowest resting stage of combina tion and to raise it into combination with hydrogen and oxygen and ultimately with nitrogen. There are plants which have no chlorophyll and are thus unable to feed upon carbonic acid. They are none the less plants since they agree closely with particular chlorophyll-bearing plants in details of form and structure, mode of growth and reproduction. A large series of these are termed Fungi. Though unable to feed on carbonic acid, they do not feed as do animals. They can take their carbon from acetates and tartrates, which animals cannot do, and their nitrogen from ammonia. Even when it is admitted that some of these colourless plants, such as the Bacteria (Schizomycetes), can act upon albumens so as to digest them and thus nourish themselves, it is not reasonable to place the Bacteria among animals, any more than it would be reasonable so to place Nepenthes, Sarracenia, and Drosera (insectivorous Phanerogams). For the structure and mode of growth of the Bacteria is like that of well- known chlorophylligerous minute Algae from which they undoubtedly differ only in having secondarily acquired this peculiar mode of nutrition, distinct from that which has dominated and determined the typical structure of plants. So we find in a less striking series of instances amongst animals that here and there the nutritional arrangements which we have no hesitation in affirming to be the leading characteristic of animals, and to have directly and perhaps solely determined the great structural features of the animal line of descent, are largely modified or even alto gether revolutionized. The green Hydra, the freshwater Sponge, and some Planarian worms produce chlorophyll corpuscles in the protoplasm of their tissues just as green plants do, and are able in consequence to do what animals usually cannot do namely, feed upon carbonic acid. The possibilities of the protoplasm of the plant and of the animal are, we are thus reminded, the same. The fact that characteristically and typically plant protoplasm ex hibits one mode of activity and animal protoplasm another does not prevent the protoplasm of even a highly developed plant from asserting itself in the animal direction, or of a thoroughly characterized animal, such as the green Hydra, from putting forth its chlorophylligenous powers as though it belonged to a plant. Hence it is not surprising that we find among the Protozoa, notwithstanding that they are characterized by the animal method of nutrition and their forms determined by the exigencies of that method, occasional instances of partial vegetable nutrition such as is implied by the deve lopment of chlorophyll in the protoplasm of a few members of the group. It would not be inconsistent with what is observed in other groups should we find that there are some unicellular organisms which must, on account of their structural resemblances to other organisms, be con sidered as Protozoa and yet have absolutely given up alto gether the animal mode of nutrition (by the ingestion of solid albumens) and have acquired the vegetable mode of absorbing ammonia, nitrates, and carbonic acid. Experi ment in this matter is extremely difficult, but such " veget able " or "holophytic nutrition " appears to obtain in the case of many of the green Flagellata, of the Dinoflagellata, and possibly of other Protozoa. On the other hand there is no doubt that we may fall into an error in including in the animal line of descent all unicellular organisms which nourish themselves by the inception of solid nutriment. It is conceivable that some of these are exceptional creophagous Protophytes parallel at a lower level of structure to the insectivorous Phanero gams. In all cases we have to balance the whole of the evidence and to consider probabilities as indicated by a widely-reaching consideration of numerous facts. The mere automatic motility of unicellular organisms was at one time considered sufficient indication that such organisms were animals rather than plants. We now know that not only are the male reproductive cells of ferns and similar plants propelled by vibratile protoplasm, but such locomotive particles are recognized as common products ("swarm-spores " and " zoospores ") of the lowest plants.
The danger of dogmatizing erroneously in distinguish-