Q U A Q U A 147 ing homes in large bands, but these are said to be as nothing compared with the enormous flights that emigrate from Europe towards the end of September. During both migrations immense numbers are netted for the market, since they are almost universally esteemed as delicate meat. On capture they are placed in long narrow and low cages, darkened to prevent the prisoners from fighting, and, though they are often so much crowded as to be hardly able to stir, the loss by death that ensues is but trifling. Food, usually millet or hempseed, and water are supplied in troughs hung in front, and thus these little birds are trans- ported by tens of thousands from the shores of the Mediterranean for consumption in the most opulent and populous cities of Europe. The flesh of Quails caught in spring commonly proves dry and indifferent, but that of those taken in autumn, especially when they have been kept long enough to grow fat, as they quickly do, is excellent. In no part of the British Islands at present do Quails exist in sufficient numbers to be the especial object of sport, though there are many places in which a few, and in some seasons more than a few, yearly fall to the gun. When made to take wing, which is not always easily done, they rise with great speed, but on such occasions they seldom fly far, and no one seeing them only thus would be inclined to credit them with the power of extensive migra- tion that they possess, though this is often overtaxed, and the birds in their transmarine voyages frequently drop exhausted into the sea or on any vessel that may be in their way. In old days they were taken in England in a net, attracted thereto by means of a Quail-call, a simple instrument, 1 the use of which is now wholly neglected, on which their notes are easily imitated. Five or six other species of the restricted genus Coturnix are now recognized ; but the subject of the preceding remarks is generally admitted to be that intended by the author of the book of Exodus (xvi. 13) as having supplied food to the Israelites in the wilderness, though a few ornithological writers have thought that bird to have been a SAND-GROUSE (q.v.). In South Africa and India allied species, C. delegorguii and C. coromandelica, the latter known as the Rain-Quail, respectively occur, as well as the commoner one, which in Australia and Tasmania is wholly replaced by C. pectoralis, the Stubble- Quail of the colonists. In New Zealand another species, C. novaz-zelandix, was formerly very abundant in some districts, but is considered to have been nearly if not quite extirpated within the last twenty years by bush- fires. Some fifteen or perhaps more species of Quails, inhabiting the Indian and Australian Regions, have been separated, perhaps unnecessarily, to form the genera Synoecus, Perdicula, Excalphatoria, and so forth ; but they call for no particular remark. America has some fifty or sixty species of birds which are commonly deemed Quails, though by some authors placed in a distinct Family or Sub-family Odontophorinse. 2 The best known is the Virginian Quail, or Colin, as it is frequently called- that being, according to Hernandez, its old Mexican name. It is the Ortyx virginianus of modern ornithology, and has a wide distribution in North America, in some parts of which it is known as the " Partridge," as well as by the nickname of "Bob-White," aptly bestowed upon it from the call-note of the cock. Many attempts have been made to introduce this bird to England (as indeed similar trials have been made in the United States with Quails from Europe) ; but, though it has been turned out by hundreds, and has been frequently known to breed after liberation, its numbers rapidly diminish until it wholly disappears. The beautiful tufted Quail of Cali- 1 One is figured in Rowley's Ornithological Miscellany (ii. p. 363). 2 They form the subject of a monograph in folio by Gould, published between 1844 and 1850. fornia, Lophortyx califomica, has also been tried in Europe without success. All these American Quails or Colins seem to have the habit of perching on trees, which none of the Old- World forms possess. Interesting from many points of view as is the group of Birds last mentioned, there is another which, containing a score of species (or perhaps more) often termed Quails or Button-Quails, is of still greater importance in the eyes of the systematist. This is that comprehended by the genus Turnix, or Hemipodius of some authors, the anatomical structure of which removes it far from the genera Coturnix, Ortyx, and their allies, and even from any of the normal Gallinse. Prof. Huxley, as already stated (ORNITHOLOGY, vol. xviii. p. 36), would regard it as the representative of a generalized stock from which the Charadriomorphae and Alectoromorphse, to say nothing of other groups, have sprung. Want of space prevents our here dwelling upon these curious birds. One species, T. sylvatica, inhabits Barbary and southern Spain, and under the name of Andalucian Hemipode has been included (though on evidence not wholly satisfactory) among British Birds as a reputed straggler. The rest are natives of various parts of the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian Regions. It is characteristic of the genus Turnix to want the hind toe; but the African Ortyxelus and the Australian Pedionomus which have been referred to its neighbourhood have four toes on each foot, and, since nothing is known of the anatomy or habits of the first and but little of those of the second, 3 their position must at present be considered doubtful. (A. N.) QUAKERS. The Quakers, or, as they call themselves, the Society of Friends, are a body of Christians small in number but presenting several features of interest. To the student of ecclesiastical history they are curious as exhibit- ing a form of Christianity widely aberrant from the preva- lent types, and as a body of worshippers without a creed, a liturgy, a priesthood, or a sacrament ; to the student of social science they are interesting as having given to women an almost equal place with men in their church organization, and as having attempted to eliminate war, oaths, and litigation from their midst. The student of English constitutional history will observe the success with which they have, by the mere force of passive resistance, obtained from the legislature and the courts indulgence for all their scruples and a recognition of the legal validity of their customs ; whilst to the student of American history the Quakers will ever be remarkable for the pro- minent part they played in the colonization of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. History. The history of Quakerism in England may conveniently be divided into four periods: (1) from the first preaching of Fox in 1648 to the establishing of a church organization in 1666; (2) from that date to the Revolution of 1688; (3) from the Revolution to 1835; and (4) from 1835 to the present time. 1. George Fox (q.v.), the son of a weaver of Drayton in Leicestershire, was the founder of the Quakers. He began to preach in 1648, and in a few years gathered around him a great body of followers and a considerable number of itinerant preachers like himself, who zealously promul- gated his doctrines. Amongst these Edward Burrough was one of the most remarkable. In 1655 these preachers num- bered seventy-three. Fox and his fellow-preachers spoke whenever opportunity offered sometimes in churches, 3 Col. Legge's observations on the habits of Pedionomus in the Zoological Society's Proceedings (1869, pp. 236-238) would seem to shew a Limicoline affinity. Garrod in the same work (1873, p. 34) figured the skull as that of a Turnicine, in which view Forbes acquiesced (Ibis, 1882, pp. 389, 431) ; but against it Col. Legge im- mediately protested (torn, cit., p. 610).
