252 RAILWAY burg and Moscow. This was built by the state, but afterwards sold to a private company. After the close of tlie Crimean War railway construction was more rapid. The lines were laid down by the Government surveyors, but were constructed and managed by private companies, receiving, however, much help from the Government. Of the 15,000 miles in operation hardly a tenth part belongs to the state, even including the 700 miles of state railway in Finland. Yet about half the capital employed in rail- way construction has been furnished by the state. Since 1880 the construction of railways in European Russia has moved slowly. Of greater importance has been the development of the Asiatic lines. The first of these, in the Caucasus, was opened in 1872 to a length of nearly 200 miles. The Trans-Caspian military railway was begun in 1880 ; the connexion between the Caspian and the Black Sea was completed in 1883. The Siberian railway is being pushed forward as rapidly as the finances of the empire will allow. The administration is in most respects modelled upon that adopted by Germany and Austria. The plan of the Russian railways has been dictated by military rather than industrial considerations. The gauge is 5 feet. Turkey. Isolated lines were constructed in Turkey in 1860 and 1866. The first general plan for a system of importance dates from 1869, and was modified in 1872. Foreign companies furnished the capital and received a subsidy from the Government. In return they were to make certain annual payments ; but the clauses providing for this were so carelessly drawn that the companies seem to have had an interest in delaying the completion of the work. Some of the lines were lost in the cession of territory which followed the war of 1878. There are now open for traffic about 1000 miles of railway in European Turkey, and 200 more in Asia Minor. There is a fairly developed system of railways (1000 miles or more) in Roumania, owned by the state ; and there are a few lines in Servia. Arrangements seem to be completed by which through communica- tion in these countries will soon be established on a large scale, if the authorities in Turkey and Bulgaria do not fail in their duty. The Government of Greece is also engaged in extending its railway system, which has hitherto amounted to nothing. (A. T. H.) Canada. America. In the Dominion of Canada 9113 miles of railway and 6735 of tramway, together 15,848, were open in the end of 1883. The accounts show that the total outlay for construction amounted to about 73 millions sterling, being at the rate of 4610 per mile. The gross earnings for the year 1883 amounted to up- wards of 6 millions sterling, of which 72'3 per cent, was absorbed as working expenses, leaving 1,693,000 net earnings, which amounted to only 2'3 per cent, on the capital cost. The earlier railways were laid to gauges of 5 and 3 feet, but the inconveniences of break of gauge with the railways of the United States led to the relaying of all the lines to the standard gauge, except those of Newfoundland and Prince Edward's Island, which remain on the 3^ feet gauge. The principal system is the Grand Trunk Railway, comprising the original Grand Trunk and the Great Western, which were consolid- ated in 1882, making a total length of 2358 miles of line. The first section of the system Portland to Montreal was opened in 1853, the first line opened in Canada. In June 1884 of the (esti- mated) 2899 miles of the Canadian Pacific Railway, connecting the Pacific with the Atlantic, 2105 miles were open and in operation. Mexico. In Mexico the first railway constructed and opened was the Mexi- can Railway, between Mexico city and Vera Cruz, 264 miles, with a branch 29 miles, the first section from Vera Cruz to Paso del Macho being opened in 1865. This railway, with one or more others in Mexico, was constructed to the 4 feet 8 inch gauge, but others, including the Mexican National Railway, 910 miles long, are laid to the 3 feet gauge. The Mexican Central Railroad, 1224 miles long, was completed in 1884. Col- The Panama Railroad, Colombia, between Aspinwall and Panama, ombia. 47 miles in length, was opened in January 1855. The rails are laid to a gauge of 5 feet. Railways were in progress in 1883-84 in several of the other states of Colombia, all of them to a gauge of 3 feet. Guate- In Guatemala the first line of railway from San Jose to Esquintla, mala. 13 miles in length, laid to a gauge of 3 feet, was opened in June 1880. A line from Champerico to Ritalhulca, 30 miles long, was opened in December 1883 ; and another from San Jose to the capi- tal, 69 miles long, is now finished. Brazil. In the empire of Brazil the Mana Railway was the first line opened, early in the decade 1850-60. It is a short line of single way, 11 miles long, between the head of the bay of Rio de Janeiro and the foot of the serra. It was laid to a gauge of 5J feet ; but other lines in Brazil are laid to a gauge of 5 feet 3 inches. The empire possessed in January 1884 railways of a total length of 3500 miles open for traffic, besides 1500 miles in course of construction. The state owns nine lines, having 1300 miles open, the principal of which is the Dom Pedro II., intended to connect the eastern and western provinces of the empire. Chili. Chili was one of the first states in South America to initiate the construction of railways. The Copiapo Railway, laid to the 4 feet 8 inch gauge, was opened about 1850 ; and an Act was passed in 1852 authorizing the construction of a line to connect Santiago with Valparaiso, 114 miles distant. In 1855 the first 8 miles were opened for traffic, and in 1863 the line was opened throughout. It was constructed to a gauge of 5 feet. In 1883 the total length of lines open for traffic was 1378 miles. In Peru a system of railways has been in course of construction Per since 1852, chiefly at the expense of the state. In 1878 there were open for traffic, or in course of construction, twenty -two lines belonging to the state and to private individuals, 2030 miles in length, representing a cost of about 36 millions sterling. Africa. The railways of Lower Egypt have been laid out pri- Egv marily to connect Alexandria, Cairo, and Suez, with branches to Mansurah and elsewhere in the Delta. The line first laid out, between Alexandria and Cairo, 130 miles long, was opened in January 1856. The junction line from Bennah to Suez is lOlf miles in length ; the total length of railways open for traffic in Egypt at the end of 1883 was 941 miles, laid to the 4 feet 8^ inch gauge. There are three systems of railway at the Cape of Good Hope, Cap the Western from Cape Town, the Midland from Port Elizabeth, Col and the Eastern from Est London. In January 1884 there were 1213 miles open for traffic. In the colony of Natal there were at the end of 1883 105 miles Nal of railway open, and 120 were then in course of construction. In the Island of Mauritius there are two lines of railway laid Ma to the 4 feet 8 inch gauge, with two branches, of a total length ofriti 94 miles. The North line, starting from Port Louis, is 31 miles long, and was opened in 1864 ; the Midland line, passing through the centre of the island, is 35 miles long, and was opened in 1865. Asia. In 1845 the East Indian and the Great Indian Peninsula Ind Railway Companies were formed. Four years later the Government entered into arrangements with these two companies for the con- struction of railways in the presidencies of Bengal and Bombay, guaranteeing for ninety-nine years a dividend of from 4^ to 5 pel- cent, upon the estimated cost of these and succeeding railways. They adopted one uniform gauge of 5 feet 6 inches. Down to 1869 this policy of guarantee and uniform gauge was adhered to. But in 1869, under the rule of Lord Lawrence, the Government altered the standard gauge for new lines to one metre, or 3 feet 3f inches, and used the lightest rails and rolling-stock compatible with the requirements of Indian traffic. There are now five different railway gauges in India, namely, the 5^ feet, the 3 feet 3| inch, the 4 feet, the 2^ feet, and the 2 feet. The first piece of railway opened in India was a section of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, 20 miles long, from Bombay to Tannah, in 1853. At the end of March 1884 there were 1288 miles of that railway open for traffic. The East Indian Railway was opened for a length of 38 miles in 1854 ; there are now 1509 miles open. In 1869 this railway was transferred to Government, though it is still worked by the com- pany. Of the Madras Railway 65 miles were opened in 1856 ; there are now 861 open. The first of the imperial state railways was opened (114 miles) in 1873. At the end of March 1884 the number of miles of line open for traffic was as follows (Table XXXIII.) : Miles open, March 1884. Cost per Mile, December 1883. Kast Indian Railway 1,509 22,400 Guaranteed railways 4,641 15,000 Assisted companies 256 ( Darjiling-
Himalayan
State railways Imperial 2,649 ( 4,700 10,200 Provincial 1,273 6,00 Native States 504 5,'000 Total for all railways 10,832 13,700 The number of passengers carried increased from 24,280,459 in 1874 to 65,098, 953 in 1883. In Ceylon the railways have been constructed by the Govern- Ct ment. The main line, from Colombo to Kandy, 74, t miles long, was opened for traffic in 1867 ; and the branch to Navalapitiya, 17 miles long, was opened in 1874. The Kalutara Railway, 27$ miles long, was finally opened in 1879. There were 164 miles open at the end of 1884, and 16 in course of construction. The only railway ever laid in China ran along a strip of land, C about 9 miles long, between Shanghai and Woosung, opened in 1876. In October 1877 the line was removed and the traffic came to an end in consequence of official jealousy, although the- railway was very popular with the natives. The first railway that was opened in Japan was the Tokio -Yoko- 3- hama line, 18 miles in length, commenced in 1869 and opened tor traffic in 1872, laid to a gauge of 3 feet. At June 1884 ther were open for traffic 236 miles of railway. Australia. The four leading colonies of Australia have their capitals connected by railways, and each has its own gauge. The railways of New South Wales are divided into three systems, J> all of which take their departure from Sydney, the capital, theS northern, the western, and the southern system. The first piece of line, 15 miles in length, was opened in 1855 ; and at the end of 1883 there were 1320 miles open for traffic, and 597 in course of
