R A Y R A Y 301 to Falborne Hall in Essex. Finally, in 1679, he removed to Black Notley, where he afterwards remained. His life there was quiet and uneventful, but embittered by bodily weakness and chronic sores. He occupied himself in writ- ing books and in keeping up a very wide scientific corre- spondence, and lived, in spite of his infirmities, to the age of seventy-six, dying on 17th January 1705. Ray's first book, the Calalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nasccnlium (1660, followed by appendices in 1663 and 1685), was written in conjunction with his " amicissimus et individuus comes," John Nid. The plants, 626 in number, are enumerated alphabetic- ally, but a system of classification differing little from Caspar Bauhin's is sketched at the end of the book ; and the notes contain many curious references to other parts of natural history. The stations of the plants are minutely described ; and Cambridge students still gather some of their rarer plants in the copses or chalk -pits where he found them. The book shows signs of his indebtedness to Joachim Jung of Hamburg, who had died in 1657 leaving his writings unpublished ; but a MS. copy of some of them was sent to Ray by Hartlieb in 1660. Jung invented or gave precision to many technical terms that Ray and others at once made use of in their descriptions, and that are now classical ; and his notions of what constitutes a specific distinction and what characters are valueless as such seem to have been adopted with little change by Ray. The first two editions of the Catalogus plantarum Anglisz (1670, 1677) were likewise arranged alphabetic- ally ; but in the Synopsis stirpium Britannicarum (1690, 1696, also re-edited by Dillenius 1724, and by Hill 1760) Ray applied the scheme of classification which he had by that time elaborated in the Mcthodus and the Historia plantarum. The Methodus plan- tarum nova (1682) was largely based on the works of Cfesalpini and Jung, and still more on that of Morison of Oxford. The greatest merit of this book is the use of the number of cotyledons as a basis of classification ; though it must be remembered that the difference between the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous embryo was detected by Grew. After dividing plants into flowerless and flowering, Ray says, " Floriferas dividemus in Dicotyledones, qxiarum semina sata binis foliis anomalis, seminalibus dictis, quse cotyledonorum usum prtestant, e terra exeunt, vel in binos saltern lobos dividuntur, quamvis eos supra terram foliorum specie non efferunt ; et Monocotyledones, quse nee folia bina seminalia efferunt nee lobos binos condunt. Hrec divisio ad arbores etiam extendi potest ; siquidem Palrme et congeneres hoc respectu eodern modo a reliquis arboribus differunt quo Monocotyledones a reliquis herbis. " But a serious blemish was his persistent separation of trees from herbs, a distinction whose falsity had been exposed by Jung and others, but to which Ray tried to give scientific founda- tion by denying the existence of buds in the latter. At this time he based his classification, like Cfesalpini, chiefly upon the fruit, and he distinguished several natural groups, such as the grasses, Labiates, Umbelliferse, and Papilionacess. The classification of the Mcthodus was extended and improved in the Historia plantarum, but was disfigured by a large class of Anomalfe, to include forms that the other orders did not easily admit, and by the separation of the cereals from other grasses. The first volume of this vast book was published in 1685, the second in the next year, and the third in 1704 ; it enumerates and describes all the plants known to the author or described by his predecessors, to the number, according to Adanson, of 18,625 species. In the first volume a chapter "De plantis in genere " contains an account of all the anatomical and physiological knowledge of the time regarding plants, with the recent speculations and discoveries of Cresalpini, Grew, Malpighi, and Jung. And Cuvier and Dupetit Thouars, declaring that it was this chapter which gave acceptance and authority to these authors' works, say that "the best monument that could be erected to the memory of Ray would be the republica- tion of this part of his work separately." The Stityrium Europaz- arum extra Britannias nascentium Sylloge (1694) is a much amplified edition of the catalogue of plants collected on his own Continental tour. In the preface to this book he first clearly admitted the doctrine of the sexuality of plants, which, however, he had no share in establishing. Here also begins his long controversy with Rivinus, which chiefly turned upon Ray's indefensible separation of ligneous from herbaceous plants, and also upon what he con- ceived to be the misleading reliance that Rivinus placed on the characters of the corolla. But in the second edition of his Methodus (1703) he followed Rivinus and Tournefort in taking the flower instead of the fruit as his basis of classification : he was no longer a fructicist but a corollist. Besides editing his friend Willughby's books, Ray wrote several zoological works of his own, including Synopses of Quadrupeds (1693), that is to say, both mammals and reptiles, of Birds, and of Fishes (1713) ; the last two were published posthumously, as was also the more important Historia Insectorum (1710). The History of Insects embodied a great mass of Willughby's notes, and the Synopses of Birds and Fislws were mere abridgments of the " Orni- thology" and "Ichthyology." Most of Ray's minor works were the outcome of his faculty for laborious compiling and cataloguing ; for instance, his Collection of English Proverbs (1670), his Collection of out-of-the-way English Words (1674), his Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages (1693), and his Dictionariolum trilingue, or Nomenclator classicus (1675). The last was written for the use of Willughby's sons, his pupils ; it passed through many editions, and is still useful for its careful identifications of plants arid animals mentioned by Greek and Latin writers. But Ray's permanent influence and reputation have probably depended most of all upon his two books entitled The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Crea- tion (1691), and Miscellaneous Discourses concerning the Dissolution and Changes of the World (1692). The latter includes three essays, on "The Primitive Chaos and Creation of the World," "The General Deluge, its Causes and Effects," and "The Dissolu- tion of the World and Future Conflagrations." The germ of these works was contained in sermons preached long before in Cambridge. Both books obtained immediate popularity ; the former, at least, was translated into several languages ; and to this day their influ- ence is apparent. For, as Sir J. Smith says in his biography of Ray, ' ' this book [ The Wisdom of God, &c. ] is the basis of all the labours of following divines, who have made the book of nature a commentary on the Book of Revelation." In it Ray recites in- numerable examples of the perfection of organic mechanism, the multitude and variety of living creatures, the minuteness and usefulness of their parts. Many, if not most, of the familiar proofs of purposive adaptation and design in nature were suggested by Ray. The structure of the eye, the hollowuess of the bones, the camel's stomach, the hedgehog's armour, are among the thou- sand instances cited by him of immediate creative interpositions. But, though his application of natural history to apologetic theo- logy has made his reputation peculiarly wide, it must be acknow- ledged that none of his scientific discoveries at all equal in value those of the physiological botanists who immediately preceded him, and that even in classificatory insight he was surpassed by several of his contemporaries. Authorities. Select Remains, Itineraries, and Life, by Dr Derham, edited by George Scott, 1740 ; notice by Sir J. E. Smith in Ree's Cyclopaedia ; notice by Cuvier and A. Dupetit Thouars in the Biographie Universelle ; all these were collected under the title Memorials of Ray, and edited (with the addition of a complete catalogue of his works) by Dr Edwin Lankester, 8vo (Ray Society), 1846 ; Correspondence (with Willughby, Martin Lister, Dr Robinson, Petiver, Derham, Sir Hans Sloane, and others), edited by Dr Derham, 1718 ; Selections, with additions, edited by Lankester Ray Society), 1848. For accounts of Ray's system of classification, see Cuvier, Legons Hist. s. Sci. Nat., p. 488 ; Sprengel, Gesch. d. Botanik, ii. p. 40 ; also Whewell, Hist. Ind. Sci., iii. p. 332 (ed. 1S47), and Wood, art. "Classification" in Ree's Cyclopeedia. (D. W. T.) RAYMOND LULLY. See LULLY. RAYMOND OF SABUNDE (Sebonde, Sebeyde, &c.) appears to have been born at Barcelona towards the end of the 14th century. He combined the training of a phy- sician and a theologian, and was professor of theology at Toulouse, seemingly from the year 1430 onwards. He published there in 1436 his chief work, Theologia Naturalis, sive liber creaturarum. This book was reprinted pretty frequently during the next two centuries, and has recently been republished at Sulzbach (1852), but without the intro- duction, which, for some not very intelligible reason, was placed upon the Index by the council of Trent. It was translated into French by. Montaigne at the command of his father (see Montaigne, Essais, ii. 12). The six Dialogi de natura hominis are an extract from the larger work made by Raymond himself. Raymond is a scholastic of the period of decline. The chief thought of the Theologia Naturalis is the parallelism between the book of nature and the book of revelation. The second of these two books is more sacred on account of its supernatural character, but a foundation must be laid by the study of the first. Nature culminates in man, who alone of the creatures possesses all the four properties which mark off the different grades of existence (esse, vivere, sentire, intelligere). But man himself points forward to a self -existent unity in which individual differences disappear. Everything that we find in the creatures is present in God without limitation or negation, so that God's being is the universal being of all things. Hence it is true that God created the world out of nothing. Raymond endeavours to deduce the principal dogmas of the church by the natural light in a similar fashion. Man's own advantage and the glory of God are
