E F R E F 339 various Acts passed since 1870 school boards have power, with the consent of the secretary of state, to contribute to or wholly to undertake the establishment, building, and maintenance of in- dustrial schools, and a power exists to transfer industrial schools from other authorities to school boards, but such schools are sub- ject to the jurisdiction of the secretary of state in the same manner as other certified industrial schools. The machinery for bringing children, the subjects of certified industrial schools, before the proper tribunal for making orders has been and is a vexed question. Legis- lative powers given to "any one" are apt to fall into abeyance or into the hands of the police. School boards have a discretionary power to appoint officers to bring children before justices to be sent to industrial schools (33 and 34 Viet. c. 75, s. 36). A school board or school attendance committee (as the local authority) is required, after due warning to the parents, to complain to a court of summary jurisdiction of the non-attendance of a child coming within the elementary education Acts, and must so complain at the instance of any person. The court may then make an attend- ance order for the child at some certified efficient school, and, in case of non-compliance, may order the child to be sent to a certified day or other industrial school. The expenses of industrial schools, established by or contributed to by school boards, form part of the general expenses of the school fund. As in the case of other in- dustrial schools, parents are liable to contribution, and where a child is ordered upon complaint made by a school attendance com- mittee to be sent to a certified industrial school the council, guard- ians, or sanitary authority appointing such committee have, on the recommendation of the committee, the same power of contri- buting towards the maintenance as if they were a school board (42 and 43 Viet. c. 48, s. 4). In 1876 a fresh class of industrial schools was introduced called "certified day industrial schools," in relation to which prison authorities and school boards have the same powers as in the case of industrial schools ; and towards the custody, industrial training, elementary education, and meals of children attending these schools parliament may contribute a sum limited to Is. per head per week, on conditions recommended by the secretary of state, with a limited power over the contribution of parents. In certain cases of non- compliance with an attendance order the child is sent to a day industrial school rather than to an industrial school of the class described above (39 and 40 Viet. c. 79, s. 16). In large cities day industrial schools are calculated to be of great service in dealing with the class of poor neglected children. The children are found to be managed without much difficulty, and to respond to any efforts made on their behalf ; they compare favourably with children kept for years in close confinement, and are often their superiors in spirit and intelligence (27th Report of inspector). Another de- scription of certified schools has sprung up in connexion with school boards, "truant schools." The few which at present are established in London and some large towns are on the whole doing a good work. The necessary adaptation of certified industrial schools to the school-board system must necessitate the placing of all reformatory and industrial schools on a clearer system of classi- fication. Crime must be distinguished from pauperism. However crime may arise from neglect of parents, it is neither desirable nor fair to compel as the price of poverty children unconvicted of crime to associate with juvenile delinquents even after the punishment of crime has ceased. On the other hand, the actual incarceration of boys and girls in a jail should be avoided as far as possible. The total number of schools under Government inspection at the close of 1883 was 200, viz., 61 reformatory and 139 industrial schools, of which last 7 were specially certified as truant and 12 as day industrial schools. The number of children under detention in 1883 in reformatory schools in Great Britain was 6657, at a total school expenditure of 126,122, of which 85,635 was paid by the treasury, 6140 by parents, 23,183 by rates, and 4943 by sub- scriptions and legacies. In industrial schools the number was 18,780 and the expenditure 359,821, of which 176,733 was paid by the treasury, 17,596 by parents, 40,052 by rates, 65,542 by school boards, and 42,129 by subscriptions. The total admissions (excluding transfers) to reformatory schools to the end of 1883 amounted to 42,669, viz., 34,640 boys and 8029 girls. The total discharges (excluding transfers) were 36,111, viz., 29,235 boys and 6876 girls. They were disposed of as follows : Boys. Girls. Total. Employment or service 9,962 3814 13,776 Placed out through relatives . . 9 663 2115 11 778 Emigrated 2 317 148 2 465 Sent to sea . . 4 291 4 211 Enlisted . 693 693 Discharged from disease . 374 181 555 Discharged as incorrigible . . 213 91 304 Died 6 781 299 1 080 Absconded, and not recovered 941 228 1 169 29,235 6S76 36,111 The total admissions to industrial schools (excluding transfers) to the end of 1883 were 61,260, viz., 48,959 boys and 12,301 girls. The total discharges (excluding transfers) were 42,412, viz., 33,877 boys and 8535 gins. They were disposed of as follows : Boys. Girls. Total. Employment or service 12,513 5248 17 761 To friends 10,212 1995 12 207 Emigrated 737 130 867 Sent to sea 5 325 5 325 Enlisted 921 921 Discharged as diseased, or on special grounds 859 281 1 140 Committed to reformatories 885 153 1 038 Died 1,405 557 1 962 Absconded, and not recovered 1,020 171 1 191 33,877 8535 42,412 Ireland. Reformatory schools were established in Ireland in 1858, and ten years afterwards were placed mainly on their present footing (Irish Reformatory Schools Act, 1868) ; whilst the estab- lishment and regulation of industrial schools were provided for by the Industrial Schools Act (Ireland), 1868, extending to Ireland, with certain modifications, the English Act of 1866. The differ- ences between the Acts applicable in Ireland and Great Britain relate chiefly to minor matters. The rule requiring a young offender or a child to be sent to a school under the same religious manage- ment is much more rigid in Ireland than in Great Britain, and the- Irish Act does not limit the power of sending a child under ten to a reformatory school where the child has not been previously charged with an offence punishable with penal servitude or im- prisonment. The power to contract with managers for the recep- tion and maintenance of young offenders is in general vested in grand juries and in some town councils. The number of reforma- tory schools in Ireland at the close of 1883 was 9, viz., 5 for boys and 4 for girls, with 907 boys and 192 girls. Of industrial schools there were 62, viz., 17 for boys, 44 for girls, and 1 for young boys and girls, with a total of 2409 boys and 3759 girls. The disposal on discharge follows the lines given in the tables for Great Britain. Much the larger proportion of girls in industrial schools in Ireland, as might be anticipated, find their subsequent career in employment or service, or are placed out through friends. Emigra- tion also is absolutely far larger (and has been from the establish- ment of industrial schools) in the case of girls than of boys. The reported results of the training of girls discharged from reformatory schools are very satisfactory, and among the 1526 girls discharged during the three years 1880-82 there was only one conviction for crime during 1883. The total receipts for the maintenance of reformatory schools in 1883 were 28,116, of which 17,555 was contributed by the treasury vote and 7920 from local rates. The average cost per head for maintenance (including rent and dis- posal) was 23, 9s. for boys and 27, 2s. 2d. for girls. For in- dustrial schools the receipts in 1883 were 126,820, of which the treasury contributed 77,259 and rates 27,960. Parental con- tributions to reformatory and industrial schools were 1018. United States. The institutions in the United States and of other civilized countries, having for their object or effort the reclamation of the young, are too closely connected with the educa- tion of poor and destitute children generally to allow of examination here, or of useful comparison with the reformatory and industrial schools of Great Britain under state control. In 1882 a royal commission was issued to inquire into the management generally of all certified reformatories and industrial schools in the United Kingdom. The commission, in the following year, suggested a simplification of the law and the removal of some anomalies and defects, including the vexed question as to the treatment of boys and girls in relation to imprisonment, and the distinctions already ad- verted to. The commissioners expressed their "opinion that these schools were having a salutary effect in reducing the amount both of juvenile and of adult crime. The memor- anda of the earl of Dalhousie and Lord Norton attached to the Report are worthy of special attention. (j. E. D.) REFORMED 'CHURCHES, the designation of those Protestant bodies who adopted the tenets of Zwingli (and later of Calvin), as distinguished from those of the Lutheran or Evangelical divines. Compare PRESBYTERIANISM, RE- FORMATION, and GERMANY, vol. x. p. 469. REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA (DUTCH), formerly the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church, a reli- gious denomination which arose in Holland in the 16th century. See PRESBYTERIANISM, vol. xix. p. 698 sq. REFRACTION. See LIGHT and OPTICS. REFRIGERATION. See ICE and PRESERVED FOOD.
