ARCHAEOLOGY.] ROME 833 foot of the Piucian Hill, is formed by remains of a lofty and enor iiiously massive building, faced with fine opus reticulatum of tin 1st century B.C. Owing to the sinking of the foundation this 1 very much out of the perpendicular, and was known as the "murus tortus " at a very early time. 1 What this once important building was is uncertain. It has been supposed to belong to the tomb o the Domitii (Suet, Dom., 2), but on scanty grounds. Two arch- ways which form gates in the Aurelian wall are of much earliei date. The Porta Maggiore consists of a grand triple arch of the Claudian aqueduct built in travertine. The P. S. Lorenzo is a single travertine arch, built by Augustus where the aqueducl carrying the Aqua Marcia, Tepula, and Julia crossed the Via Tiburtina. The inner gateway, built of massive travertine block; by Honorius, was pulled down by Pius IX. in 1868 for the sake oJ the material. 2 Literature. Probably no archajological subject has so copious a literature as that dealing with the topography of Rome ; much of this, however, has been rendered obsolete by subsequent discoveries. The reader who wishes to study the subject in a fairly concise form will find the following books the most use- ful. 3 Nardini, Roma Antica, ed. Nibby, 1818-20 ; Nibby, Antichita di Roma, 1S30, and Roma nell' Anno 183S, 1839; Becker, Handbuch der romiscJien Alter- thiimer, Leipsic, 1843 (of special value from its numerous references to classical authors) ; Reber, Die Ruinen Roms, Leipsic, 1863 ; Buiisen and others, Beschreib- ung der Stadt Rom, Stuttgart, 1829-42, and the abridgment of this work by Plainer and Uhlrichs, 1844; Von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, Berlin, 1807-70; Jordan, Topographic dtr Stadt Rom, Berlin, 1871 (in progress, a work of great value); Burn, Rome and the Campagna, London, 1870 (by far the best work in English, both from its illustrations and very able text) ; Dyer, The City of Rome, London, new ed., 1883 (a compact work, useful for reference). The very large and magnificently illustrated works by Canina must be used with great caution ; they contain imaginative restorations rather than accurate representations of what really exists ; even those drawings which profess to give the existing remains are rendered of little value by their numerous in- accuracies. The chief of Cauina's works are Indicazione di Roma Antica, 1830 ; Esposizione topngmjica, 1842 ; Edifizj di Roma Antica, 1848-56 ; Foro Romano, 1845 ; and Architettura Antica, 1834-44. The student who wishes to enter into the subject in detail and form inde- pendent opinions will have an enormous mass of literature to wade through. (1) First, of course, come various classical authors, frequently cited above ; the MomimentiunAncymnum,ed.. Mommseu, Berlin, 1883, and other ancient inscrip- tions. (2) Second in importance come various documents of the decadence and early Middle Ages : the Notitia and Curiosum, Urbis Romx, printed by Preller in his Regionen der Stadt Rom, Jena, 1846 ; the Mirabilia Romas, ed. Parthey, Berlin, 1809 ; Graphia Aurefe Urbis, ed. Ozanam in Documents inedits, Paris, 1850; Catalogs Viennensis Imp. Rom., published by Eccard ; Deseriptio Regiomtm Romee, Einsiedeln MS., ed. Haenel in Archil) fur Philologie, v. 115, Berlin, 1837 ; Ordo Romania, ed. Fea in Dissertazioni, &c., 1830 ; the Codex Topog. U/-bis Romas, ed. Uhlrichs, Wiirzburg 1871 (contains these and extracts from other mediaeval sources) ; Paulus Diaconus, Excerpta ex Lib. Pomp. Festi, ed. Miiller, Leipsic, 1839 ; Anastasius Bibliothecarius, De Vitis Rom. Pont., ed. Branching 1718. The various commentators on Virgil known under the general name of Servivs give many valuable notes on Roman topography ; an excellent edition of these is being produced by Thilo and Hagen, Leipsic, 1881-85. (3) Thirdly we have a large number of works, mostly illustrated, pro- duced from the 15th to the 18th century, the value of which is frequently very great from the fact that they describe a large number of ancient monuments which no longer exist. Some of these, especially those earliest in date, exist only in MS. in the libraries of the Vatican, the Uffizi, Milan, and elsewhere ; a very valuable MS. of Ligorio (16th century) is preserved in the Bodleian at Oxford. Among these MSS. are drawings of ancient buildings by Raphael, Bramante, Bramantino, Baldassare, Sallustio Peruzzi, Andrea Sansovino, Palladio, and in fact by nearly all the great architects of the 16th century. Works of 15th and 16th Centuries. Biondo, Roma Ristaurata, Venice, 1543 (MS. of 1431-39) ; Poggio, De Fortunes VarieUtte (MS. of about 1440), Basel, 1538 ; Bramantino, Rovine di Roma (MS., 1503-13, in Bibl. Ambros., Milan), ed. by Mongeri, Milan, 1875 ; Albertini, Opusc. de Mirab. Urbis Romee, 1509 ; Pomp. Leto, De Vetustate Urbis, 1523 ; And. Fulvius, Antiquaria Urbis, Venice, 1527 ; Calvus, Antiques Urbis Romie Simulachrum, 1532 ; Marlianus, Urbis Romie Topog., 1544 ; Palladio, L' Architettura, Venice, 1542, and Le Terme del Romani, printed first in London, 1732 ; Serlio, Architettura, Venice, 1545, bft. iii. ; Fauno, Antichita. di Roma, 1548 ; Labacco, Architettura ed Antichita, 1557 ; L. Mauro, Antichittt di Roma, Venice, 1558 ; Ligorio, Effigies Antiq. Romie, 1561 ; Gamucci, Antichita di Roma, Venice, 1565 ; Dosius, Urbis Romie ASdificia, 1569 ; Du Perae, Vestigj di Roma, 1575 ; Fabricius, Romee Antiq., 1587 ; Vacca, Varie Antichita, 1594, printed in Nardini, ed. Nibby, in Roma Antica, vol. iv., 1818-20 ; Miintz, Un Plan de Rome aw XVme Siecle (Soc. Nat. des Antiquaires), Paris, April 1880. 17th Century. Crechi, Antichita di Roma, 1601 ; Lauras, Antiq. Urbis Splendor, 1612 ; Maggius, sEdificia et Ruinx Romse, 1618 ; Felini, Alma Cittd diRoma, 1625 ; Scamozzi, L'Antichita di Roma, 1632 ; Franzini, Roma Ant. e Mod., 1653 ; Desgodetz, Edifices Antiques de Rome, 1682 ; Ciampini, Vetera Monuments, 1690 ; Bartoli, Admiranda Rom. Vestigia, 1693 ; De Rubeis, Romie Magnif. Mpnum., 1699. 18th Century. Pinarole, Antichita di Roma, 1709, and Vestigi di Roma, 1744 ; Donatus, Roma Vetu.s, 1725 ; Bianchini, Pal. dei Cetarl, 1738. The magnificent etchings by Piranesi are of great value; the copperplates (in a much damaged state) still exist, and are worked by the Calcogratia Camerale. They are grouped in folio vols. entitled La, Magnificenza dei Romani, 1761-64 ; L'Antichita Romana, 1750 ; and other works. See further Bellori, Ichnographia Vet. Romee, 1764 ; Venuti, Vet. Monumenta, 1778, and Descriz. Topog. di Roma, 1824; Guattani, Moniim. Antiq. ined., 1784-89, and Roma descritta, 1805. 10th CenturaMany articles of great value occur in the following periodicals Annali, Bullcttino, and Monumenti dell' Institute di Corris. Archxo. di Roma, 1829 (in progress) ; Atti dell' Accad. Rom. di Arch., 1821 ; Atti della R. Accad. dei Lincei (in progress); Bullettino della Commissione Arch. Mun. di Roma, 1872 (in progress) ; Notizie degli Scavi, 1876 (in progress). See also Valadier, Le piu insigni Fabbriche di Roma, 1810-26 ; Rossini, Antichita di Roma, 1817, large plates ; Fea, Ragionamento and other works, 1821-33 ; Taylor and Cresy, Archil. Antiq. of Rome, London, 1821 ; Romanis, Vestigie di Rom. Ant., 1832 ; Gell, Topography of Ronie, London, 1834 ; Donovan, Rome Ancient and Modern, 1842; Becker, Die romische Topographic, Leipsic, 1844 ; Zestermann, De Basilicis, Brussels, 1847 ; Braun, Die Ruinen und MuseenRoms, Berlin, 1854 ; Ampere, Histoire Romaine, Paris, 1862-64 ; Zinzow, Das dlteste i Procop., Bell. Goth., i. 23. 3 See Becker, De Rom. Muris et Portis, Leipsic, 1842 ; Nibby and Gell, Le Mura di Roma, 1820 ; Quarenghi, Le Mura di Roma, 1880 ; Burn, Rome and the Campagna, 1870, with other general works mentioned above. 3 In the list given above all books are printed in Rome unless otherwise de- scribed. Rom, Pyritz, 1866 ; Parker, Photographs illustrating the Arch, of Rome Oxford 1867 ; Friedlander, Sittengeschichte Roms, Leipsic, 1869, and Darstellungen ai der Sittengesch. lioms, Leipsic, 1881 ; Wey, Description de Rome, Paris 1871 Gsell-Fels, Romische Ausgrabungen, Hildburghausen, 1870; Jordan forma Urbis Ronue, Berlin, 1875, with supplement of 1883, and Novae Qutestiones Tupog., Konigsberg, 1868; Lanciani, / Com.mento.rii di Frontino 1880 and Dissertazioni Arclixo., 1876-85 ; De Rossi, Note di Topog. Rom 1882 Duruv Histoire des Remains, Paris, 1878-84, well illustrated ; J. H. Middleton' Ancient Rome in 1S85 (A. & C. Black, Edinburgh), 1885.' MAPS^-NolH'"' mat of ancient Rome, 1748, is largely followed by Canina in his large map in many plates, 1850 ; Moltke, Carta Topog. di Roma, Berlin, 1852 Rieu Rom Vet 1 chnographm, Lyons, 1863 ; good maps of ancient and modem Rome together are contained in the guides of Gsell-Fels, Baedeker, and Murray an excellent map of ancient Rome is given by Burn, Rome and the Campagna, London, 1876. CHRISTIAN ROME. 1. From if ic 4th to the 12 fh Century. The era of church building in Rome may be said to begin with Plate the reign of Constantino and the peace of the church. Before then VIII Christian worship was conducted with various degrees of secrecy either in private houses or in the CATACOMBS (q. v.), ac- cording as the reigning emperor viewed the sect with tolerance or dislike. The type of church which in the beginning of the 4th century was adopted with certain modifica- tions from the pagan basilica, though varying much in size, had little or no variety in its general form and ar- rangement. One fixed model was strictly ad- hered to for many cen- turies, and, in spite of numberless alterations and additions, can be traced in nearly all the ancient churches of Rome. Fig. 26 shows a typical xample, omitting all later changes. 4 The plan is that of the lower ihurch of S. Clemente, built in the 4th century, probably in the reign of Uonstantine ; an exist- ng inscription records ts restoration by S. Siricius (384-398). The ittings, altar, choir- screen, &c., are not now 'n situ, but were moved nto the upper church when that was built, be- tween 1100 and 1118. They were then rather _ carelessly put together, FIG. 26. Plan of lower church of S. Clemente. and the proper positions A. Celebrant's throne in western apse. B. High nf tVio m->er>f>l anr fliA 01 . 5 , ipistle ambo reversed. The figure shows these fittings replaced in the ancient church as they originally stood ; they are rather later than the building itself, being made under Pope John, probably the second of that name (532- >35) ; his monogram is sculptured on the marble slabs which form the low walls of the choir. In the 13th century ornaments of mosaic nlay were added on these 6th-century screens by one of the Cos- mati. The baldacchino which now exists in the upper church is of c. 1100, but two of the columns of a much older canopy are pre- served by being used in the construction of a fine 15th-century
- omb near the high altar. These have richly carved caps of semi-
classical style, and, as well as the high altar, have an inscription ecording their gift to the church by the priest Mercurius in the wntificate of Hormisdas (514-523). The paintings of the 9th century, and even earlier, which cover the walls of the lower
- hurch are among the most important existing specimens of early
Christian art. 5 altar and baldacchino. C- Stairs down to con- fessio. D, D. Side doors in screen. E. Gospel ambo . F . Epistle ambo. G. Lectern. H. Paschal candlestick. J, J. Aisles. K. Doors
- east end. L. Stairs to upper church. M.
Fountam of ablution. X Campanile, 4 The plan of the upper church of S. Clemente is shown under BASILICA, fig. 13, vol. iii. p. 417 ; other plans of early basilicas are given in the same article. 5 See Mullooly, S. Clement and his Basilica, Rome, 18(39 ; De Rossi, in Bull. Arch. Crist., 1863, 1865, 1867, especially 1870, pt. iv. XX. 105
