Tho only operation now required is that of turning its superficies until correctly cylindrical ; and this is a work
of immense labour and patience.For dressing muslins, gauzes, lawns, and other goods of a light kind, a smaller species of calender is employed. It consists of only three cylinders of equal diameter (gene rally about 6 inches), and is easily moved by a common winch or handle. The middle cylinder is iron, and the others are of wood or pasteboard. All the cylinders are of equal diameter, and are moved with equal velocities by means of small wheels. This machine is always used in a cold state.
By means of the calender, also, is produced the waved or watered surface, known as moire among the French, and best seen in the silk textures called moire antique, and in woollen moreens. The effect is produced in a variety of ways, the principal method employed consisting of pass ing two webs laid above each other through the calender at the same time. The threads of the web not running perfectly parallel to each other are at some places super imposed, and at other points they fit into alternate spaces, the result being that at the places where the threads press directly on each other a higher gloss is produced, which gives the watered appearance to the texture. Water ing is also effected on a single thickness of material by moving the web to the right and left as it enters the calender, and thus varying the direction in which it travels over a bowl on which there are a series of engraved lines running in a parallel direction. Embossed patterns, or imitations of the grain of leather, &c., for bookbinders cloth, are produced by means of a calender having a bowl of brass or other metal on which the pattern is engraved. When a paper cylinder is used along with an embossing cylinder, the paper must be turned into such exact pro portion to the embossed bowl that it will repeat the pattern accurately on its circumference, so that the depressions on the one bowl always fit accurately into the elevations on the other. For many purposes a covering of leather, felt, or lead is used for the cylinder which works against that on which the pattern is engraved.
Goods after passing through the calender are folded, either by machinery or on long pins by hand-working into a variety of forms according to their nature and destina tion, and when so folded they are submitted to a very powerful compression either in a screw-press or in an hydraulic press.
Fig. 3, Plate XXXII., is a perspective view of an hy draulic press. A is the piston, 8 inches diameter, working in the cylinder B, and kept water-tight by passing through a collar of leather; D, a cast-iron plate raised by the piston A, between which and the entablature E, E the goods to be pressed are laid ; C, 0, C, C, four malleable iron columns, 2J inches diameter, having screwed ends, with nuts, by which the entablature and the base F, F are firmly con nected together; G, a cistern for holding water to supply the two force-pumps H and I, the largest of which has a piston 1 L inch diameter, and the other one of -*- inch diameter, which is used to give the highest pressure"; K, K, weights to balance the pump-handles which fit into the sockets at I, I. The pistons of the force-pumps are made water-tight by collars of leather, kept in their place by the screwed pieces m and n. e, c, e is a pipe communicating with the pumps and the large cylinder B ; there is a stopcock at /, which shuts this communication when required.
Fig. 4 is an enlarged view of the force-pump piston, to show the method of keeping the rod parallel.
An illustration of a glazing calender as used by bleachers and calico-printers, with further details as to finishing processes, will be found under Bleaching. See also Calico Printing.
CALEPINO, Ambrogio (1435-1511), an Augustine monk, born at Bergamo in 1435, was descended of an old family of Calepio, whence he took his name. He devoted his whole life to the composition of a polyglott dictionary, first printed at Reggio in 1502. This gigantic work was after wards augmented by Passerat and others. The most complete edition, published at Basel in 1590, comprises no fewer than eleven languages. The best edition is that published at Padua in seven languages in 1772. Calepiuo died blind in 1511.
CALHOUN, John Caldwell (1782-1850), a leading politician of the United States, was grandson of an Irish Presbyterian, who founded Calhoun settlement, in the district of Abbeville, South Carolina. It was there that John Calhoun was born in 1782. For some years he assisted his widowed mother in the management of her farm, but at the age of eighteen he commenced to study for the bar. He graduated with honours at Yale College, and spent eighteen months at Litchfield, at that time the only law school in the country. He then returned to practise in his native district of Abbeville. While there, in June 1807, the searching of the Chesapeake having aroused strong feeling in America. Calhoun drew up for a public meeting a resolution expressive of indignation against Great Britain, and supported it in a speech of such power that he was soon after elected a member of the legislature, and in November 1811, became member of Congress, where he continued to be an enthusiastic and prominent adherent of the war party. For seven years (commencing with 1817) he acted with credit as secretary of war iinder Monroe; in 1825 he became Vice-President of the United States under J. Quincy Adams ; and in 1829 he was re-elected under General Jackson. He now began to be looked upon as champion of the South ; and, though he had supported the protective tariff of 1816, he became an eager advocate of free-trade, that policy being, even popularly, recognized as specially advantageous to tho cotton-growing States. He is, however, best known as a strenuous defender of slavery, and as the author of a doctrine to which the Civil War may be traced, the doctrine of " nullification," according to which each State has the right to reject any act of Congress which it considers unconstitutional. This view was in 1829 adopted by the legislature of his native State, and drawn up in a document, mainly prepared by Calhoun, which was known as the " South Carolina Exposition," and which was approved by Virginia, Georgia, and Alabama. In 1832 the legislature of South Carolina carried the theory into practice by passing laws nullifying the obnoxious tariff of that year; but its opposition was crushed by the firmness of General Jackson, who declared that he would resort to force, if necessary. The most important of the other political acts of Calhoun are his defence of the right of veto which belongs to the president, his advocacy of the annexation of Texas, and his maintenance of the cause of peace, when war with Great Britain was threatened by the claims of the United States to Oregon. He died at Washington on the 31st March 1850. His works, with memoir, were published posthumously in 6 vols. in 1853-4, by Richard K. Cralle, who had been his amanuensis. They include a dissertation On the Constitution and Government of the United States ; and from this book we learn that he advocated the election of two presidents, one by the free and another by the slave States, the consent of both of whom should be essential to the passing of any law. Calhoun s speeches were always directly to the point, clear, and forcible, while he seldom indulged in the imaginative or purely rhetorical. The integrity and worth of his character have been spoken of in the highest terms even by political opponents.
