especially the middle classes, the officers of the army, the students at the universities, the artists, and even the priests, to the number, it is said, of nearly 700,000. Unable, however, to resist the military power of Austria, backed by a European congress, the revolution and the Carbonari along with it were crushed, and many, such as Silvio Pellico, implicated or supposed to be implicated in their conspiracies, perished or languished in Austrian dungeons. They never quite revived in Italy ; though active again in 1330 and 1831, they were forthwith super seded by the more energetic and more extreme " young
Italy " of Mazzini.It was about 1820 that Carbonarism began to take root in France. There the organization was more perfect, as in addition to what had been attained in Italy, there was a supreme board, presided over by the veteran Lafayette, and a complete hierarchy of societies, by which the will of the chief was communicated, from higher to lower, to the smallest lodges in the extremities of France ; these were ventes particulieres, ventes centrales, hautes ventes, ventes tupr ernes. It made great progress in France, especially among the students and sub-officers of the army. The example of Spain and Italy having incited the French Carbonari to immediate action, attempts to raise an insur rection were made in 1821 at Belfort, Thouars, La RoeheUe, and other towns. They were all immediately suppressed, but not without revealing to what extent the Carbonari had spread over France. It was at the trial of Bories, one of those concerned in the rising at La Rochelle, that the nature and organization of the Carbonari in France became publicly known, and attention was drawn to the mutual fide lity prevalent among them, as none but those immediately concerned in tha insurrection could be brought to trial. Though completely defeated in 1821, French Carbonarism did not die out, but continued to be an active centre of revolutionary discontent till 1830, when, after contributing to the July revolution, most of the members adhered to the government of Louis Philippe For several years after, traces of it existed in some French towns, but these are of no importance.
Heckethorn s Secret Societies ; Botta s History of Italy, vol. ii. ; Alison s History of Europe, vol. ii. ; Annuaire Historique.
CARBONDALE, a city of the United States, in the county of Luzerne in Pennsylvania, near the source of the Lackawanna River, on the Delaware and Hudson Railway, about 110 miles N.N.W. of Philadelphia. Its incorpora tion only dates from 1851, and (as its name implies) its principal importance consists in the fact that it is the centre of an extensive coal-field. About 900,000 tons are obtained annually from the neighbouring mines. Popula tion in 1850, 4945; in 1870, 6393.
CARBUNCLE is a name applied in modern times to the various kinds of garnet employed by jewellers when cut en cabochon, that is, with a smooth convex surface, and the back either flat or hollowed out. On account of the deep red colour of most garnets it is necessary to adopt this kind of cutting, especially when the stones are of any considerable size, in order to exhibit their rich hues by the light passing through a comparatively thin stratum of the material. The carbuncle is frequently mentioned in the Bible, although it is impossible to define the precise stone referred to under that name in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures. The stone in the breast-plate of the High Priest, which is translated carbuncle (Exodus xxviii. 17), is in the original called Bareketh, literally meaning flashing, while again, in Isaiah liv. 12, the term Kadkod, equivalent to the glowing of fire, is also rendered by carbuncle. The carbunculus of Pliny appears to have included all the deep-rsd coloured stones which were suitable for jewellery and gems, such as the ruby and the spinel, as well as the various kinds of garnet. It is remark able that among the varieties distinguished by classical writers were the lychnis or lamp stone, and the av6pa or live coal, both in common with the scriptural names indicat ing stones with a fiery glow. In the setting of carbuncles, a ruby-like glow is frequently communicated to the stones by a backing of coloured metallic foil which modifies their hue, a practice which is found to have prevailed in Roman times, tanta est in illis occasio artis, subditis per quce translucere coyantur. The finest carbuncles come from Pegu and Ceylon, and they are sometimes found in masses of such dimensions that cups measuring as much as one and a half or two inches in height and diameter are cut out of them. See under Garnet.
CARBUNCLE, an acute local inflammation of the deeper layers of the skin, followed by sloughing. It is met with in those who are weakened by any cause, and in certain unhealthy constitutional states. It is accompanied by great constitutional disturbance ; in the early stages of the disease the pain is considerable. A hard flattened swelling of a deep red colour is noticed on the back, face, or extremities. This gradually extends until in some instances it may become as large as a dinner-plate. To wards the centre of the mass numerous small openings form on the surface. From them blood and matter escape, and through these openings a yellow slough, of leathery con sistence, can be seen. The treatment generally adopted is free incisions through the mass, relieving the tension and alleviating the pain. Poultices are then applied to encourage the separation of the slough. After this comes away a healthy ulcer is left which heals rapidly, leaving an indelible scar. Opium is given in order to relieve the pain. The patient requires supporting diet, stimulants, good food, and the administration of iron. Occurring as it does in people of an unhealthy tendency, it may in severe cases occasion death. Some surgeons do not inter fere with the knife, but give opium in large doses, and allow the slough to separate by natural processes.
CARCAJENTE, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia, 2/ miles from the right bank of the Jucar, iu 39 4 N lat. and 331 W. long., with a station on the railway between Valencia and Almansa. It is inhabited chiefly by an agricultural population, but has a consider able manufacture of linen and woollen stuffs, and silk thread from the silk produced in the neighbourhood. The town-house (a modern building), the parish church, and the palace of the marquis of Calzada are its principal build ings. Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Population, 8850.
Aude, in France, is situated on both sides of the River Aude, and in the immediate neighbourhood of the Canal du Sud, about 55 miles S.E. of Toulouse, on the railway between that city and Xarbonne, in 43 J 12 54" N. lat. and 2 20 55 E. long. On an abrupt elevation on the right bank of the river stands the old city, enclosed by a double line of ramparts and towers, and retaining the aspect of a mediaeval fortress. A portion of the inner line is attributed to the Visigoths ; the rest, including the castle, seems to belong to the llth or 12th century, while the outer circuit has been referred mainly to the end of the 13th. The old cathedral of St Nazaire, which partly dates from the llth century, and contains magnificent stained-glass windows of the Renaissance period, has been restored under the superintendence of M. Viollet : le-Duc. On the left bank of the river, but connected with the city by a bridge of twelve arches, lies the new town, clean, well-built, and flourishing, with streets intersecting each other at right angles. It is surrounded by boulevards
occupying the site of its ramparts, and has a large esplanade