graving generally accepted) can be fairly assigned; and as at this period there were professional card-makers estab lished in Germany, it is probable that wood-engraving was employed to produce cuts for sacred subjects before it was applied to cards, and that there were hand-painted and stencilled cards before there were wood-engravings of saints. The German Briefmaler or card-painter probably progressed into the wood-engraver; but there is no proof
that the earliest wood-engravers were the card-makers.It is undecided whether the earliest cards were of the kind now common, called numeral cards, or whether they were tarocchi or tarots, which are still used in some parts of France, Germany, and Italy, but the probability is that the tarots were the earlier. A pack of tarots consists of seventy-eight cards, four suits of numeral cards and twenty- two emblematic cards, called atutti or atouts. Each suit consists of fourteen cards, ten of which are the pip cards, and four court (or more properly coat cards), viz., king, queen, chevalier, and valet. The atouts are numbered from 1 to 21; the unnumbered card, called the /OH, has no positive value, but augments that of the other atouts. (See Academic des Jeux, Corbet, Paris, 1814, for an account of the mode of playing tarocclimo or tarots.)
The marks of the suits on the earliest cards (German) are hearts, bells, leaves, and acorns. No ace has been discovered corresponding to the earliest known pack, but other packs of about the same date have aces, and it seems unlikely that the suits commenced with the deuces.
Next in antiquity to the marks mentioned are swords, batons, cups, and money. These are the most common on Italian cards of the late 15th century, and are now used both in Italy and in Spain. French cards of the IGth century bear the marks now generally used in France and England, viz., cceur, trefle, pique, and carreau.
The French trefle, though so named from its resem blance to the trefoil leaf, was in all probability copied from the acorn; and the pique similarly from the leaf (griin) of the German suits, while its name is derived from the sword of the Italian suits. It is not derived from its resemblance to a pike head, as commonly supposed. In England the French marks are used, and are named hearts, clubs (corresponding to trefle, the French symbol being joined to the Italian name, bastoni), spades (corre sponding to the French pique, but having the Italian name, spade [dissyl.]), and diamonds. This confusion of names and symbols is accounted for by Chatto thus " If cards were actually known in Italy and Spain in the latter part of the 14th century, it is not unlikely that the game was introduced into this country by some of the English soldiers who had served, under the banners of Hawkwood and other free captains, in the wars of Italy and Spain. However this may be, it seems certain that the earliest cards commonly used in this country were of the same kind, with respect to the marks of the suits, as those used in Italy and Spain."
About the last quarter of the 15th century, packs with animals, flowers, and human figures, for marks of the suits, were engraved upon copper ; and later, numerous variations appeared, dictated by the caprice of individual card-makers ; but they never came into general use.
The court cards of the early packs were king, chevalier, and knave. The Italians were probably the first to sub stitute a queen for the chevalier, who in French cards is altogether superseded by the queen. The court cards of French packs received fanciful names, which varied from time to time.
Abbe Rive, Edaircissements sur V Invention des Cartes A joucr, Paris, 1780 ; J. G. I. Breitkopf, Versuch den Ursprung dcr Spiel- karten zu erforschen, Leipsic, 1784 ; Samuel Weller Singer, Researches into the History of Playing Cards, loith Illustrations of the (jriyin of -Printing and Engraving on Wood, London, 1816 ; G. Peignot, Analyse Critique et raisonnee de toutes les EechercJies puliliees jusqu a cc jour, sur VOrigine des Cartes djouer, Dijon, 1826; M. C. Leber, Etudes historiques sur les Cartes a jouer, principale- mcnt sur les Cartes Fran^aises, Paris, 1842; William Andrew Chatto, Facts and Speculations on the Origiii and History of Playing Cards, London, 1848 ; P. Boiteau D Ambly, Les Cartes a joucr et la Carlo- tiiancie, Paris, 1854, translated into English with additions under the title of The History of Playing Cards, with Anecdotes of their use in Conjuring, Fortune-telling, and Card-sharping, edited bv the Rev. E. S. Taylor, B.A., London, 1865; W. Hughes Will- shire, Al.D., A Descriptive Catalogue of Playing and other Cardf in the British Museum, printed by order ol the Trustees, London, 1876.
CARDUCCI, Bartolommeo (15GO-1G10), better known as Carduccio, the Spanish corruption of his Italian patronymic, was born in Florence, where he studied architecture and sculpture under Ammanati, and painting under Zucchero. The latter master he accompanied to Madrid, where he painted the ceiling of the Escorial Library, assisting also in the production of the frescos that adorn the cloisters of that famous palace. He was a great favourite with Philip III., and lived and died in Spain, where most of his works are to be found. The most celebrated of them is a Descent from the Cross, in the church of San Felipe el Real, in Madrid.
CARDUCCI, or Carduccio, Vincenzo (15G8-1G3S), was born in Florence, and was trained as a painter by his brother Bartolommeo, whom he followed to Madrid, lie worked a great deal for Philip III. and Philip IV., and his best pictures are those he executed for the former monarch as decorations in the Pardc Gallery. Examples of him are preserved at Toledo, at Valladolid, at Segovia, and at several other Spanish cities. For many years he laboured in Madrid as a teacher of his art, and from his atelier issued Giovanni Ricci, Pedro Obregon, Vela, Collantes, and other distinguished representatives of the Spanish school during the 17th century. He was also author of a treatise, or dialogue, De las Excelencias de la Pintnra, which was published in 1G33.
and ecclesiastical historian, was born at Blackburn in Lancashire in 1787. He was educated at Brasenose College, Oxford, where, in 1809- he took his degree of B.A. as first class in classics and second class in mathematics, and became a fellow of his college. He took his master s degree in 1812. After being for several years engaged as tutor and lecturer he was appointed, in 1814, one of the examiners to the university. In 1826 he was chosen Camden Professor of Ancient History ; and during his five years professorship he published an edition of the Ethics of Aristotle with selected notes for the use of students, and a course ot his lectures on The Coinage of the Greeks and Romans. In 1831 he took his degree of D.D., and was called to the post of principal of St Alban s Hall, which he held till his death. He published in 1837 a student s edition of the Greek Testament, with the text divided into paragraphs, and furnished with various readings and notes, and accompanied page for page by the English authorized version. In the same year appeared his edition of the Greek and Latin texts of the History of the Jewish War, by Josephus, with illustrative notes. But his most important labours were in the field of English Church History. He projected an extensive work, which was to embrace the entire synodical history of the church in England, and was to be founded on Wilkins s Concilia. Of this work he executed some portions only. " The first published of these was Documentary Annals of the Reformed Church of England from 1546 to 1716, which appeared in 1839 and soon reached a second edition. It was followed by a History of Conferences, &c., connected with the Revision of the Book of Common Prayer from 1550 to 1690 (1840), which reached a third edition within ten
years. In 1848 appeared Synodalia, a Collection of Articles