tribesmen. Sometimes a " taksman " succeeded in acquir ing his land in perpetuity, by gift, marriage, or purchase, or even by the " strong hand." The universal prevalence of exchangeable allotments, or the rundale system, shows that down to even comparatively modern times some of the land was still recognized as the property of the tribe, and
was cultivated in village communities.The chief governed the clan by the aid of a council called the sabaid (sab, a prop), but the chief exercised much power, especially over the miscellanous body of non-tribes men who lived on his own estate. This power seems to have extended to life and death. Several of the flaiths, perhaps, all heads of septs, also possessed somewhat exten sive powers of the same kind.
The Celtic dress, at least in the Middle Ages, consisted of a kind of shirt reaching to a little below the knees called a lenn, a jacket called an inar, and a garment called a brat, consisting of a single piece of cloth. This was apparently the garb of the aires, who appear to have been further dis tinguished by the number of colours in their dress, for we are told that while a slave had clothes of one colour, a rig tuatha, or chief of a tribe, had five, and an ollamh and a superior king, six. The breeches was also known, and cloaks with a cowl or hood, which buttoned up tight in front. The lenn is the modern kilt, and the brat the plaid, so that the dress of the Irish and Welsh in former times was the same as that of the Scottish Highlander.
By the abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Highland chiefs, and the general disarmament of the clans by the Acts passed in 1747 after the rebellion of 1745, the clan system was practically broken up, though its influence still lingers in the more remote districts. An Act was also passed in 1747 forbidding the use of the Highland garb j[1] but the injustice and impolicy of such a law being generally felt it was afterwards repealed.
CLAPARÈDE, Jean Louis René Antoine Édouard, (1832-1870), an eminent naturalist, was born at Geneva, April 24, 1832, and belonged to an ancient family of that city. His father was pastor of the parish of Chancy, and Edouard s early years were spent in that village. After a distinguished course at the classical college, tb.3 gymnasium, and the academy of his native city, he repaired in 1852 to the university of Berlin, and there devoted himself with self-sacrificing ardour to the study of medicine and the natu ral sciences and the acquisition of the Germanic languages of Northern Europe. The direction of his investigations was greatly affected by J. Miiller and Ehrenberg, the former of whom was at that period engaged in his important researches about the Echinoderms. In 1855 he accompanied Miiller to Norway, and there spent two months on a desolate reef that he might obtain satisfactory observations. The latter part of his stay at Berlin he devoted, along with Lachmann, to the study of the Infusoria and Rhizopods ; and their united labours resulted in an important publica tion which at once gave them rank among the chief zoologists of the day. In 1857 he obtained the degree of doctor, and soon after he was chosen professor of com parative anatomy in the academy of Geneva. Here he continued to teach with ever growing acceptance ; and he even became a favourite of the general public through his popular lectures. In 1859 he visited England, and, in company with Dr Carpenter, took a voyage to the Hebrides ; and in 1863 he spent some months in the Bay of Biscay. On the appearance of Darwin s work on the Origin of Species, he adopted his theories and published a valuable series of articles on the subject in the Revue Germanique, 1861. His enormous activity might seem to indicate vigorous health ; but he was a martyr from the year 1854 to a painful affection of the heart, which caused excessive palpitations, frequently accompanied by spitting of blood. During 1865 and 1866 he was quite incapable of work, and he determined to pass the winter of 1866-7 in Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and the patient s indomitable energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the Annelidas of the Gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage in 1868; but in 1870, instead of recovering as before, he grew worse, dropsy set in, and on the 31st of May he died at Siena on his way home. Modest and retiring, he was at the same time generous, hospitable, and helpful ; and in spite of his physical weakness, he displayed remarkable spirit in the political disturbances of Geneva. A certain bluntness of expression sometimes made him fail of courtesy in debate, and he could be pitilessly severe in his criticism where he thought severity was deserved ; but he was at the same time strikingly free from uncharitableness, jealousy, or resentment. Hia library was bequeathed to his native city. See the notice of his life by Henri de Saussure in the 42d vol. of the Archives des Sciences physiques et naturelles (Bibliotheque Univ. et Revue Suisse), Geneve, 1871.
Besides the works already mentioned his chief contributions to science are : " Ueber Actinophrys Eichhornii," in M tiller s .<4rcft. fur Anatomie, 1855; " Sur la theorie de la formation de 1 CEuf," in Arch, des Sci., 1855; " Anatomie und Entwickelungs geschichte der Neritina fluviatilis," in JIuller s Arch., 1857 ; various papers in regard to binocular vision in the Arch, des Sci., 1858 and 1859 ; Zur Morphologic der Zusammengesetzten Augen bei den Arthropo- den" in Zeitsch. fur Wissensch. Zool., 1860 ; Recherches anat. sur les Oligochetes, Gen., 1862 ; Rech. sur Vevolution des Araignees, 1862, which obtained the gold medal of the Utrecht Society of Arts and Sciences ; Bcobacht. iiber Anat. und Enticickelungsgesch. Wir- bcllosrr Thiere an der Kiiste der Normandie, 1863; "De lamyopie," in Arch, des Sci., 1868; "Studien an Akariden," in Zeitsch. fur Wiss. Zool., 1868; and " Histologische Untersuch. iiber den Regenwurm (Lumbricus terrestris)" in do., 186S. He left in MSS. Recherches sur la structure des Annelides sedentaires.
CLAPPERTON, Hugh (1788-1827), an African traveller, was born in 1788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where his father was a surgeon. In his youth he gained some knowledge of practical mathematics and navigation ; and while still very young he was apprenticed on board a vessel which traded between Liverpool and North America. After having made several voyages across the Atlantic, he was impressed for the navy, in which, having a little influence and much intelligence and physical vigour, he soon rose to the rank of midshipman. He acted as drill sergeant in the "Asia," the flag-ship of Vice- Admiral Cochrane, and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the Canadian lakes. In the year 1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was dismantled, he returned to his native country on half-pay.
contracted an intimacy with Dr Oudney, who first awoke his interest in the cause in which both were destined to perish. After the return of Captain Lyon, the British Government having determined on equipping a second expedition for the purpose of exploring Northern Africa, Dr Oudney was appointed to proceed to Bornu as consul, and Clapperton and Colonel Denham were added to the party. From Tripoli, early in 1822, they set out south ward to Murzuk, and from this point Clapperton and Oudney travelled westward into the country of the Tuaricks, as far as Ghraat, 11 E. long. On the 17th February
1823 they reached Kouka the capital of Bornu, where they
- ↑
The following oath was administered at Fort William and other places in 1747 and 1748:—
" I, [name], do swear, as I shall answer to God at the great day of judgment, that I have not, nor shall have, in my possession any gun, sword, pistol, or any arm whatsoever, and that I never use tartan, plaid, or any part of the Highland garb ; and if I do so, may I be cursed in my undertakings, family, and property, may I never see my wife and children, father, mother, or relations, may I be killed in battle as a coward, and lie without Christian burial in a strange land, far from the graves of my forefathers and kindred ; may all this come across me if I break my oath."
