the Portraiture of Quakerism (1806), Memoirs of Wil liam Penn (1813), Researches, Antediluvian, Patriarcfial, and Historical (1836), intended as a history of the inter ference of Providence for man s spiritual good, and Stric tures on several of the remarks concerning himself made in the Life of Wilberforce, in which his claim as originator of the anti-slavery movement is denied. See his Memoirs
by Thomas Elmes and Thomas Taylor.CLAUBERG, John (1622-1665), one of the most noted of the immediate followers of Descartes, was born at Solingen, in Prussia, in the year 1622. After travelling in France and England, he came to Leyden, where he studied philosophy under ,the Cartesian John Ray. He became professor of philosophy at Herborn, and afterwards at Duisburg, and was one of the earliest teachers of the new doctrines in Germany. Clauberg is justly celebrated as an exact and methodical commentator on his master s writings ; but he was no mere commentator, and his specu lations anticipate in a marked degree the subsequent course of thought in the Cartesian school. His theory of the connection between the soul and the body is hardly to be distinguished from that afterwards advanced by Male- branche ; while his view of the relation which God holds to his creatures is a distinct foreshadowing of the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist only through the continuous creative energy of the Divine Being, and are no more independent of his will than are our thoughts independent of us, or rather less, for there are thoughts which force themselves upon us whether we will or not. Clauberg died at Duisburg in 1665. His chief works are De con- junctione animce et corporis humani scriptum ; Exercitationes centum de cognitione Dei et nostri ; Logica veins et nova ; Initiatio pliilosophi, seu Dubitatio Cartesiana. He also wrote a commentary on Descartes s Meditations. A com plete edition of his works in two vols. was published at Amsterdam in 1691.
CLAUDE, Jean (1619-1687), a famous French Protes tant preacher and controversialist, was born at Sauvetat near Agen, where his father was a Protestant minister. He held for eight years the office of professor of theolog} in the Protestant college of Nimes; but in 1661, having opposed a suggestion which was made at a provincial synod for reuniting Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to preach in Lower Languedoc. On visiting Paris in order to appeal against this command, he became engaged in a controversy with Bossuet and Arnauld con cerning the Eucharist. In 1662 he obtained a post at Montauban similar to that which he had lost ; but after four years he was removed from it also. He next became pastor in Paris, where he continued his controversy with Bossuet. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes he fled to Holland, and received a pension from the Prince of Orange. He continued to preach occasionally at L the Hague till his death.
His principal works are the Eepoiise aux deux traites intitules LaPerp&uiU de la Foi de I Eglise Catholique touchant I Eucharistie (1G65) ; ReponseaulivredeP. Nouet surrJ2ucharistie(16G&); Defense de la Reformation, ou r&ponse aux prejugis Ugitimes de Nicole (1678) ; Plaintes des Protestants cruellement opprimes dans le Royaume de France (1686); (Euvres posthumes (Amsterdam, 1688), containing the Traiti de la Composition d un Sermon, which was translated into English in 1778. See biographies by Niceron and Laderize.
CLAUDE of Lorraine, or Claude Gelée (1600-1682), the celebrated landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the village of Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that he made no progress at school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly said, to a pastry-cook, but this is extremely dubious. At the age of twelve, being left an orphan, he went to live at Freiburg with an elder brother, Jean Gel6e, a wood-carver of moderate merit, and under him he designed arabesques and foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a livelihood ; but from his clownishness and ignorance of the language, he failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to Naples, to study landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a painter of much repute. With him he remained two years ; then he returned to Rome, and was domesticated until April 1625 with another landscape-painter, Augustin Tassi, who hired him to grind his colours and to do all the household drudgery. His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his greatest works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the elements of design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began to expand, and he devoted him self to artistic study with great eagerness. He exerted his utmost industry to explore the true principles of painting by an incessant examination of nature ; and for this purpose he made his studies in the open fields, where he very frequently remained from sunrise till sunset, watching the effect of the shifting light upon the landscape. He generally sketched whatever he thought beautiful or striking, marking every tinge of light with a similar colour ; from these sketches he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in Italy, France, and a part of Germany, including his native Lorraine, suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl Dervent, painter to the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant for a year ; and he painted at Nancy the architectural subjects on the ceiling of the Carmelite church. He did not, however, relish this employment, and in 1627 returned to Rome. Here, painting two landscapes for Cardinal Bentivoglio, he earned the protection of Pope Urban VIII. and rapidly rose into celebrity.
Claude was not only acquainted with the facts, but also with the laws, of nature ; and Sandrart relates that he used to explain, as they walked together through the fields, the causes of the different appearances of the same landscape at different hours of the day, from the reflections or refrac tions of light, or from the morning and evening dews or vapours, with all the precision of a natural philosopher. He elaborated his pictures with great care ; and if any performance fell short of his ideal, he altered, erased, and repainted it several times over.
harmoniously illumined. His distances and colouring are delicate, and his tints have a sweetness and variety till then unexampled. He frequently gave an uncommmon tender ness to his finished trees by glazing. His figures, however, are very indifferent ; but he was so conscious of his deficiency in this respect, that he usually engaged other artists to paint them for him, among whom were Curtois and Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to say that he sold his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to avoid a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very numerous spurious copies of his works, he made tinted outline drawings (in six paper -books prepared for this purpose) of all those pictures which were transmitted to different countries ; and on the back of each drawing he wrote the name of the purchaser. These books he named Libri di Verita. This valuable work has been engraved and published, and has always been highly esteemed by students of the art of landscape. Claude died at Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 21st of November 1682, leaving his wealth, which was considerable, between his only surviving relatives, a nephew and niece. Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in the National Gallery, and in the Louvre ; the landscapes in the Altieri andColonna Palaces in Rome are also of especial celebrity. He himself regarded a landscape which he painted in the Villa Madama, being a cento of various views with great abundance and
variety of leafage, and a composition of Esther and