corporeal wants and impulses, contemplate God the supreme good, and live a life according to reason. In other words, he must strive after likeness to God as He reveals himself in his Reason or in Christ. Clement thus looks entirely at the enlightened moral elevation to which Christianity raises man. He believed that Christ instructed men before He came into the world, and he therefore viewed heathenism with kindly eye. He was also favourable to the pursuit of all kinds of knowledge. All enlightenment tended to lead up to the truths of Christianity, and hence knowledge of every kind not evil was its handmaid. Clement had at the same time a strong belief in evolution or development. The world went through various stages in preparation for Christianity. The man goes through various stages before he can reach Christian perfection. And Clement conceived that this development took place not merely in this life, but in the future through successive grades. The Jew and the heathen had the gospel preached to them in the world below by Christ and His apostles, and Christians will have to pass through processes of purification and trial after death before they reach perfect knowledge and perfect
bliss.The beliefs of Clement have caused considerable difference of opinion among modern scholars. He sought the truth from whatever quarter he could get it, believing that all that is good comes from God, wherever it be found. He belongs, therefore, to no school of philosophers. Some have insisted that he was an eclectic. Daehne has tried to show that he was Neo-Platonic, and Reinkens has main tained that he was essentially Aristotelian. His mode of viewing Christianity does not fit into any classification. It is the result of the period in which he lived, of his wide cul ture and the simplicity and noble purity of his character.
It is needless to say that his books well deserve study ; but the study is not smoothed by beauty of style. Clement despised ornament. He wished to avoid everything that might seem to deceive. He thought also that it was quite possible to throw pearls before swine, and that care should be taken to prevent this by digressions and difficulties which only the earnest student would encounter. He is singularly simple in his character. In discussing marriage he refuses to use any but the plainest language. A euphemism is with him a falsehood. But he is temperate in his opinions ; and the practical advices in the second and third books of the Pcedagogue are remarkably sound and moderate. He is not always very critical, and he is passionately fond of allegorical interpretation but these were the faults of his age.
All early writers speak of Clement in the highest terms of laudation, and he certainly ought to have been a saint in any Church that reveres saints. But Clement is not a saint in the Roman Church. He was a saint up till the time of Benedict XIV., who read Photius on Clement, believed him, and struck the Alexandrian s name out of the calendar. The Pope was unquestionably wrong ; and many Roman Catholic writers, though they yield a practical obedience, have adduced good reason why the decision of the Pope should be reversed (Cognat, p. 451).
The editions of Clement s works are by (1) Petrus Victorms, 1550; (2) Sylburg, 1592; (3) Heinsius, 1616 ; (4) Fronto Ducaens 1629, 1641, 1688 ; (5) Potter, London, 1715 (this was by far the best edition, and has formed the basis of subsequent editions ; it was reprinted at Venice, 1757, and in Gallandi s Bibliotheca, in Obcrthiir, and in Migne s Cursus Patrologice GTCKCCK) ; (6) Klotz, Leipsic, 1831 ; (7) W. Dindorf, Oxford, 1869. There are separate editions of Quis dives sahetur by Ghislar, Combefisius, Fell, Ittig, Segaar, and Lindner.
The writings that discuss Clement are very numerous. Notice is taken of him by ecclesiastical historians, and by the historians of Christian literature, among whom Lumper, Permaneder, and Konto- gones deserve special mention. There are monographs on Clement and his doctrine by J. and F. Tribbechovius, Kiel eke, Guerike, Hofstede de Groot, Daehne, Lentzen, Reinkens, Eeuter, Laemmer, Duperron, Cognat, Lipsius, Miiller, and Freppel, by Miss Corn- wallis in her Small Books on Great Subjects, No. vii., and by Bishop Kaye. Clement s works have been translated in Clark s Ante-Nicene Christian Library, by the Rev. W. Wilson.
CLEMENT, the name borne by fourteen Popes.
Clement I. (Clemens Romanus). See Apostolic Fathers, vol. ii. p. 195.
Clement II. (Suidger, a Saxon, bishop of Bamberg) was chancellor to the Emperor Henry III., to whom he was indebted for his elevation to the Papacy upon the abdication of Gregory VI. (December 1046). His short pontificate was only signalized by the convocation of a council in which decrees were enacted against simony. He died in October 1047, and was interred at Bamberg.
Clement III. (Paulino Scolari, bishop of Preeneste) was elected Pope in December 1187, and died in March 1191. He succeeded shortly after his accession in allaying the discords which had prevailed for half a century between the Popes and the citizens of Rome, in virtue of an agree ment by which the latter were allowed to elect their magistrates, while the nomination of the governor of the city remained in the hands of the Pope. He incited Henry II. of England and Philip Augustus to undertake the third crusade, and introduced several minor reforms in ecclesiastical matters.
Clement IV. (Gui Foulques, archbishop of Narbonne) was elected Pope in February 1265. Before taking orders he had been successively a soldier and a lawyer, and in the latter capacity had acted as secretary to Louis IX. of France, to whose influence he was chiefly indebted for his elevation. At this time the Holy See was engaged in a conflict with Manfred, the usurper of Naples ; and Clement, whose elec tion had taken place in his absence, vas compelled to repair to Italy in disguise. He immediately took steps to ally himself with Charles of Anjou, the French pretender to the Neapolitan throne, who marched into Naples, and having defeated and slain Manfred in the great battle of Eenevento, established himself firmly in the kingdom. Clement is said to have disapproved of the cruelties committed by Charles, and there seems no foundation for the charge of his having advised the latter to execute the unfortunate Conradin, the last of the church s hereditary antagonists of the house of Hohenstaufen. His private character was unexceptionable, and he is especially commended for his indisposition to promote and enrich his own relatives. He also did himself great honour by his encouragement and protection of Roger Bacon. He died in November 1268, and was buried at Viterbo, where he had resided throughout his pontificate.
is memorable in history for his suppression of the order of the Templars, and as the Pope who removed the seat of the Roman see to Avignon. He was elected in June 1305, after a year s interregnum occasioned by the disputes between the French and Italian cardinals, who were nearly equally balanced in the conclave. According to Villani he had bound himself to subserviency towards the French monarch by a formal agreement previous to his elevation ; however this may be, it is unquestionable that he conducted himself throughout his pontificate as the mere tool of that monarch. His first act was to create nine French cardinals. The removal of the seat of the Papacy to Avignon (1308) might seem palliated by the factious and tumultuary con dition of Rome at the period, but it proved the precursor of a long " Babylonish captivity," in Petrarch s phrase, and marks the point from which the decay of the strictly Catholic conception of the Pope as universal bishop is to be dated. The guilt or innocence of the Templars is one of the most difficult of historical problems, the discussion
of which belongs, however, to the history of the order.