E T H E T H development of the free spirit through the different forms of political organization: the first being that of the Orien tal monarchy, in which freedom belongs to the monarch only; the second, that of the Grseco-Ronian republics, in which a select body of free citizens is sustained on a basis of slavery; while finally in the modern societies, sprung from the Teutonic invasion of the decaying Roman empire, freedom is recognized as the natural right of all members of the community. The effect of the lectures (post humously edited) in which Hegel s "Philosophy of History" and "History of Philosophy" were expounded has extended far beyond the limits of his special school ; indeed, the pre sent predominance of the historical method in all depart ments of the theory of practice is not a little due to their influence. What place the study of history ought to take in the systematic establishment of fundamental ethical principles or of particular moral rules is, however, still a matter of eager controversy. (H. s.) CONTENTS OF ARTICLE ETHICS. PACK I Definition and General View of the Subject 574-5 II. Greek and Grseco-Roman Ethics 575-586 The Age of the Sophists 576-7 Socrates and his Disciples 577-9 Plato 579-80 Plato and Aristotle 580-1 Aristotle 581-3 Stoicism 583-5 Hedonism (Epicurus) 585-6 Later Greek and Roman Ethics 586-7 Xeo-Platonism , 587-8 III. Christianity and Medieval Ethics 588-596 Christian and Jewish "Law of God" 588-9 Christian and Pagan Inwardness. 589-90 (Knowledge, Faith, Love, Purity) Distinctive Particulars of Christian Morality 590-1 Development of Opinion in Early Christianity, Augustine, Ambrose 591-2 Mediaeval Morality and Moral Philosophy 592-3 Thomas Aquinas 594-5 Casuistry and Jesuitry 595 The Reformation ; and birth of Modern Thought 595-6 IV. Modern, especially English, Ethics 596-611 Grotius , 596 PACK IV. Modern Ethics continued Hobbes 596-7 The Cambridge Moralists 697-8 (Cudworth, More; Cumberland , , ... 598 Locke 598 Clarke 598-9 Shaftesbury 599-600 Mandeville 680 Butler 600-1 Wollaston 601 Hntcheson 601 2 Hume 602 Adam Smith 602-3 The Intuitional School 603-5 (Price, Reid, Stewart, Whewell) The Utilitarian School 605 7 (PaJey, Bentham, Mill) Association and Evolution 607-8 Free- Will 608 French Influence on English Ethics 608-9 (Helvetius, Comte) German Influence on English Ethics 609-11 (Kant, Hegel) ETHIOPIA, or ^ETHIOPIA, in Greek Ai&oTri a, the ancient ! classical designation of a country and kingdom of North eastern Africa, lying immediately to the S. of Egypt, and extending eastwards- to the Red Sea, but with no definitely marked boundaries in any other direction. According to the " folk s etymology" of the Greeks, the name was equivalent to the " land of the scorched faces," from alOfiv, to burn, and wi/f, the countenance, and this supposed derivation doubtless reacted on the employment of the word, and increased the vagueness of its meaning ; but in all pro bability it was really, like the name of Egypt itself, a corruption of some Egyptian original now unknown. The knowledge of this country possessed by the earlier Greeks was extremely slight, and greatly corrupted by mythical additions. To the generation among whom the Homeric poems took their rise the Ethiopians were the remotest inhabitants of the world, and received the gods themselves as familiar guests. They are twice mentioned by Hesiod, who calls their king by the Egyptian name of Memnon. Herodotus acquired a considerable amount of information about their connexion with Egypt, and Uemocritus is said to have travelled as far south as Meroe, and to have written an account of its hieroglyphics ; but it was not till the invasion of Ptolemy Philadelphus that the Greeks began to be familiar with the country. From Herodotus downwards we hear of a great many separate tribes, most of whom are designated by Greek epithets descriptive of some real or supposed peculiarity, as the Iclithyophagi or Fish-eaters, the Macrobii or Long-livers, the Troglodytes or Cave-dwellers. To only a few of them can their proper geographical position be assigned, and of none of them can we with certainty determine the ethno graphical affinities. The name Ethiopian, indeed, must be regarded not as an ethnographical but as a politico-geographi cal designation. It has been applied, both in ancient and modern times, to peoples of different race who have occu pied the country to the south of Egypt and the south western part of Arabia, much in the same way as the name Englishman is used by foreigners for any native of the British Islands, whether he be of Germanic or Celtic descent ; and in this respect it probably differs from the quasi-synonymous Cushite of Hebrew ethnology and the An of the Egyptian inscriptions. The inhabitants of Meroe or Southern Ethiopia were a reddish-brown people, and are so represented on the monuments ; but they were surrounded by, and perhaps intermingled with, a number of dark-skinned tribes, whose effigies indicate affinity with the negro. Modern research enables us to trace the main outlines of Ethiopian history, but with the same indefinite- ness of chronology which attaches to so much of the history of Egypt. Of its earlier epochs we are profoundly igno rant. The Greeks had a tradition that the Egyptians were indebted to the Ethiopians for the first impulse of their civilization ; but recent investigators maintain that the relation between the two peoples must have been exactly the reverse of this, and their view is supported by the fact that as we advance up the river the monuments are evidently of later date and poorer workmanship, as if the southern builders were only second-rate imitators of their northern predecessors (cf. Brugsch, Gtschichte jEgy^ ten s, 1877). The Pharaohs of the XII. Egyptian Dynasty the Usurtesens or Osortaseus and Amenemhats repulsed the encroachments of the Ethiopians and invaded their country. By Usurtesen III. a frontier fortress was erected at Semneh ; and he forbade the people to the south to enter Egypt except for the purpose of trading in cattle. During the XVIII. Dynasty we find the kings of Egypt partly in friendly and partly in hostile relations with their Ethiopian neighbours. Aahmes married an Ethiopian princess, and received the assistance of her family in the expulsion of the shepherd kings. Amenhotep (Amenophis)
I. his son, and Thothmes ff uthmosis) I. his grandson, both