FURNITUKE 849 used in making sumptuous furniture during the first period of the Renaissance. A folding chair of wrought iron (made at Augsburg), with numerous groups of figures in complete relief, is preserved at Longford Castle, Wiltshire. Mirrors, caskets, and other objects in damascened iron (Milan) are shown in the South Kensington Museum. Subjects of carving or relief were generally drawn from the theological and cardinal virtues, from classical mythology, from the seasons, months, ttc. Carved altarpieces and woodwork in churches partook of the change in style. The stalls of the cathedral of Amiens, of the Certosa of Pavia, the cathedral of Siena, and a great number of churches in Venice, Florence, Rome, Perugia, and other Italian cities, illustrata first the transition, then the full change from Gothic to classic detail in ecclesiastical furniture. The elegance of form and perfection of detail, which are noticeable in the furniture of the 16th century, declined during the 17th all over Europe. The framework became bulky and heavy, and the details coarse. Silver furniture was made in considerable quantities by the Spaniards in Spain and Italy, and it was used in the courts of the French and English kings. A few examples of silver tables, mirrors, ttc., now in Windsor Castle and at Knole, in Kent, are reproduced in electrotype in the South Kensington Museum. To this period belongs the name of Andr6 Charles Boule, who furnished the palace of Versailles. He invented or perfected a beautiful system of veneering with brass and tortoiseshell, brass and ebony, occasionally using white metal besides. Examples of this buhl or boule are shown in the Apollo gallery of the Louvre. The system of veneering, or coating common wood with slices of rare and costly woods, fastened down with glue by screw presses made to fit the surface to be covered, came into general use in the 18th century. Marquetry is veneer of different woods, forming a mosaic of pictorial or orna mental designs. In Italy, in Spain, and throughout the dominions of Charles V. and his successors, figure subjects, architectural views, and quaint interiors were represented in these materials. Usually two or three woods were employed ; they were tinted by means ( f heated sand in iron frames, and the tints graduated to the utmost nicety. Sometimes these effects were produced by splitting and laying slices of the same wood with the grain running in different directions. The fine marquetry of the last cen tury was made of tulip wood or mahogany, with lime, pear, holly, beech, and other light-coloured woods ; sometimes in ebony and ivory, in Italy particularly; or ebony and mother- of-pearl, the latter in Holland. Woods were occasionally stained green, blue, and other colours, but these tints were sparingly employed by the more famous makers. Curiously grained specimens of mahogany, known as letter wood and by other names, were used for veneering late in the century by the ciseleurs or makers of rich brass and gilt metal edgings, which that wood shows off to perfection. The golden-coloured satin wood, which was imported towards the end of the last century, was much used as a ground in English marquetry. Looking-glasses in large sheets began to be exported from Venice at the end of the 17th century; some were engraved with figures on the backs. The manufacture was established at Tourlaville, then in Paris, and about the same time at Battersea on the Thames under Govern ment protection in both countries. The light fantastic frames which came into fashion in France were called rococo (from roquaillt, coqiiaille, rock and shell work). Carved and gilt furniture was made in Italy, where it was best designed, and all over Europe till late in the 18th century. Robert Martin, who used fine lac polish, gave the name of " Vernis Martin" to painted and polished furniture of all kinds, from carriages and ardrobes to fans and snuff-boxes. He died in 1763. The dis covery of Herculaneum and Pompeii about the middle of the last century turned attention to the elegant designs of the Greco-Roman period. Riesener, David Roentgen (known as David), and the ciseleur Gouthiere are well known names cf French cabinetmakers; Chippendale, Lock, Sheraton, and Heppelwhite were Englishmen of the same period the last half of the 18th century. James and Robert Adam designed beautiful satin wood and other furniture at that date. Medallions of porcelain were sometimes inlaid in cabinet fronts. Most of these manufactures came to an end during the French Revolu tion and the long war. The "empire" style, a stiff, affected classicalism, prevailed in France during the reign of Napoleon. It is shown in the metal mounts of veneered mahogany furniture, and in the carvings of chair legs and backs. A return has been made during recent years to mediaeval designs. In England there is a going back to the fashions prevalent during the first fifty years of the last century. The elegant Louis XVI. style is more popular in France. As regards furniture of the day, and the proprieties which ought to be observed in form and decoration, it is a matter of regret that no definite style is recognized in Europe ; there cannot but be some consequent waste of power and uncertainty of aim. A few general principles, however, are held to be applicable to the shape and arrangements of furniture of whatever style. Bedsteads are now very generally made of iron in most countries of Europe, They are plain ; the portions not covered with hangings are made in brass, or coated with enamelled paint. In most cases no attempt is made to de corate them. They are clean, and easily taken to pieces and moved. They need no criticism. Bedroom furniture is no longer as rich or costly as when it was the fashion to include state bed-chambers among suites of rooms thrown open for the entertainment of guests. Wardrobes, chests of drawers, toilet tables, are only required to be of suitable size, and as conveniently arranged inside as possible, in order that light and heavy objects may be put away so as to be got at with the least possible exertion. Such pieces of furni ture should have no projections of cornices or ornaments which do but take up space. Light-coloured woods, with the simplest decorations, are preferred, on account of their freshness and cheerfulness. Common timber, such as pine, ash, oak, maple, &c., French polished, with coloured lines sparingly employed, are much used by London makers for bedroom furniture; but they are less durable than maho gany. Imitations of graining are general indeed the prac tice was common even in ancient Rome. But the Japanese methods of staining, powdering with gold dust, and polish ing common timber without hiding the grain, deserve adoption; and efforts have latterly been made in London to bring them into use. Chairs. The good construction of chairs is a test of workmanship. If the wood is well seasoned, the tenons and mortices cut with exactness, the glue hot and good, and proper pressure used in putting them together, the various parts of chairs should be as perfectly united as if the wood tad grown in the form required. Sir G. Wilkinson speaks of the admirable skill of the makers of Egyptian chairs, which required no cross bars to the legs. Lightness is another requisite. Very light chairs made of white wood with plaited grass seats are made at Chiavari in Italy. Large manufactories of chairs are carried on at High Wycombe, and other places where beech timber is easily obtained. If chairs are carved, the carving should be so subordinate to the outline and the comfort of the sitter as not to interfere with the dress, or be liable to breakage from having salient points, masses, or ornaments. The IX. 107
