had to endure rough treatment from popular litterateurs, whose inclinations generally were towards the "realism" of his rival. In 1827 M. Ingres painted a large circular composition, the "Apotheosis of Homer," for the ceiling of the Louvre, a work still regarded as one of his finest productions. In 1829 he succeeded Horace Vernet as director of the French Academy at Rome, a post he filled with great zeal, and one in which his influence over the young artists was very great. It would be idle to attempt to enumerate even the principal of the many paintings which M. Ingres produced during more than half a century. At the Exposition Universelle of 1855, a spacious saloon was entirely devoted to the chief works of the veteran master, who was rewarded with one of the large gold medals—a similar honour being accorded to his rival Delacroix. The larger works of M. Ingres are in the Louvre, the Luxembourg, St. Cloud (where his "Apotheosis of Napoleon I.," one of his latest pictures, occupies a conspicuous place), in the halls of the legislative assemblies, and in the churches and museums of Paris and the provinces; his smaller productions are widely diffused through private collections. Besides his historical and poetic subjects, M. Ingres painted portraits of many of the most eminent persons of his time. He also made designs for the painted windows of the Ste. Chapelle, St. Dreux, St. Ferdinand, &c.; and the decorations of the Duc de Laynes' chateau of Dampiere. The style of M. Ingres was professedly formed on that of Raphael, but it partakes largely of that of his master David. His paintings, with all their cleverness, appear to English eyes deficient in originality of conception, coarse, hard, and artificial in manner, and untrue in colour. But they display the large free handling of a master, and the conscientious labour of one who respects himself and his art. With all his dexterity in composition and facility of pencil, M. Ingres was a severe critic of his own work, and was always ready to sacrifice the most carefully finished portion of a picture when it fails to satisfy him. A quarto volume containing engravings from above a hundred of his principal pictures, by M. Reveil, was published at Paris in 1825, and several of his latest works have been engraved separately. M. Ingres was made officer of the legion of honour in 1841, and commander in 1845.—J. T—e.
INGUIMBERT, Joseph Dominic d', known also by the name of Malachi, a distinguished French prelate, born at Carpentras, 26th August, 1683; died in the same town, 6th September, 1757. Educated in the college of the Jesuits, he entered the order of dominicans, passed some time at Rome, and became professor of theology at Pisa. He afterwards became a Trappist, was superior of the abbey of Cazamari, and was several times consulted by Pope Clement XI. on the affairs of the Gallican church. On the death of the pope, Inguimbert was selected to write his life, and for that purpose repaired to Rome where he fell into disputes with Cardinal Albani, who charged him with communicating to the French court some documents connected with the bull Unigenitus. Clement XII , however, took him into favour and made him a bishop, at first of the titular see of Theodosia, and afterwards of Carpentras. In his native town he founded an hospital, and a valuable library which he endowed. He published several works on theology, the monastic life, the infallibility of the pope, and some biographies.—P. E. D.
INGULPHUS, Abbot of Croyland, and English chronicler, was born in London in 1030, and educated at Oxford and Westminster. He was secretary to William of Normandy before the Conquest, and went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1064, along with several bishops and archbishops, and seven thousand other persons. Of this pilgrimage Ingulphus gives an account in his history. After he had returned from Palestine, Ingulphus entered a monastery at Fontenelle, of which he became prior; but in 1076 he was summoned to England by William the Conqueror, and appointed abbot of Croyland. He continued at the head of this monastery five-and-thirty years, during which period he exhibited great ability and exercised extraordinary influence. His efforts in behalf of this establishment are recorded, with much other curious matter, in the "History of the Monastery of Croyland." In this work Ingulphus also gives some account of his own birth and life. He says, in a passage often quoted, that at Oxford, after making himself a proficient in Aristotle, "he arrayed himself down to the heels in the first and second books of rhetoric by Cicero." His Latin style scarcely justifies this assertion; but he is simple and frank in all his statements, and abounds in gossip. Ingulphus was the friend and admirer of Lanfranc, and he does not omit to tell us what notice Queen Editha took of him. Some of the facts relating to Ingulphus are recorded by Ordericus Vitalis. We have assumed the genuineness of the "History of Croyland;" but we must observe that it is denied by some of the ablest historical critics. It may have a genuine basis, but it is unquestionably interpolated to a great extent by later hands, perhaps of the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries.—(See Sir F. Palgrave's article in the Quarterly Review of 1826, and the Introduction to Riley's translation.)—B. H. C.
INNES, Thomas, a learned antiquary and historian, was born in 1662, and was descended from an ancient Scottish family. After receiving the rudiments of education in Scotland, he studied at the college of Navarre in Paris. He was subsequently appointed sub-principal, and ultimately succeeded his brother Louis as principal of the Scots college at Paris. He published in 1729 "A Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of the Northern Parts of Britain," 2 vols. 8vo, a work of great research and sound criticism, in which he refutes the traditionary notions respecting the origin and antiquity of the Scottish nation and kings. "This work," says Pinkerton, "forms a grand epoch in our antiquities, and was the first that led the way to rational criticism on them. His industry, coolness, judgment, and general accuracy recommend him as the best antiquary that Scotland has yet produced." Father Innes died in 1744.—His elder brother Louis, who was born about 1650, was secretary to the exiled king, James II., and almoner to his queen. He is said to have written the abstract of the Memoirs of James, which were published in 1816 by Dr. J. S. Clarke.—J. T.
INNOCENT I., belonged by descent to Albano. On the death of Anastasius he was unanimously elected bishop of Rome on the 18th of May, 402. Though an active and energetic prelate, we do not know much of his doings except from several letters which he addressed to various persons; all pervaded by the one leading sentiment, that nothing enacted in the christian church could be valid without the sanction of the church of St. Peter. In 404 Augustin wrote to Innocent, in the name of the bishops assembled at Carthage, requesting his intercession with the Emperor Honorius against the Donatists. Innocent willingly responded. His efforts on behalf of Chrysostom are most honourable to his head and heart. He applied to Honorius on his account; and openly separated from the enemies of the archbishop. When a North African council at Carthage wrote to him respecting the Pelagian doctrines, he eagerly seized the opportunity to set forth his views respecting the supremacy of the Roman see; praising the Africans in his reply for submitting the case to his judgment. In their condemnation of Pelagian doctrine he fully coincided with the African bishops; yet there is reason to believe that he did not entirely agree with the system of Augustine. Pelagius and Cœlestius, with their adherents, were excommunicated by him. Two of his last letters were addressed to Jerome and John of Jerusalem respectively. He died, March 12, 417. Forty-two of his epistles are extant; some probably spurious.—S. D.
INNOCENT II., previously called Gregory, a native of Rome, was elected pope on the 15th February, 1130. In consequence of the election of Anacletus II. by another party, Innocent was obliged to flee from Rome to France, where he was supported by the two heads of monachism in that day, Peter of Clugny and Bernard of Clairvaux, by whose means he attained to greater influence than he could have done in Rome itself. But though Louis VI. and the French church recognized Innocent as pope, Count William of Aquitania was won over to the side of his rival, and expelled the bishops favourable to Innocent from their offices. After five years, however, he was finally induced by Bernard to acknowledge Innocent. It was this energetic monk who paved the way for Innocent's return to Rome, after his cause had triumphed at a synod held at Pisa in 1134. Accordingly he entered triumphantly into the metropolis of Italy with the Emperor Lotharius II. The schism, however, was not completely healed till Anacletus' death in 1138. At a Lateran council in 1139, Innocent, now sole pope, declared against Arnold of Brescia, commanding him to leave Italy, and not to return without the papal permission. Against Roger of Sicily he took the field in person, but was surprised and taken prisoner in 1139. When the two had come to terms. Innocent returned in triumph. Soon after he got into a quarrel with France, because Louis VII. would not acknowledge Peter of Chartres archbishop of Bourges. The king was put by Innocent
