and over-refined where there had been too much of over-refinement already. Through him neoplatonism became more prosaic, more barren; for as he had no genius, no creative faculty, the utmost he could achieve was to make a parade of novelty by multiplying microscopic divisions, and by juggling with Pythagorean numbers. Jamblichus was a voluminous writer, but most of his productions have perished. The loss is probably not a serious one. A work on Egyptian Mysteries is supposed to be erroneously attributed to him. "An Exhortation to the Study of Philosophy," and a "Life of Pythagoras," have survived, though both in a mutilated form. The former is valuable for its references and quotations, which induce the historians of philosophy to pardon its want of literary and philosophical merit. In the "Life of Pythagoras," Jamblichus is not sparing of the fabulous and the fan astic. It looks as if he had been incapable of conceiving and de ineating a natural and noble existence. Neither deep as a sage, discerning and accurate as a critic, nor elegant, methodical, and lively as a writer, Jamblichus seems to have been indebted for his renown and influence to the simple circumstance that he was a link in the long chain of Platonic tradition. Far greater Platonic thinkers had gone before, and far greater were to follow. There is this, however, to be said in excuse of Jamblichus, that all Platonism tends to vanish into the vague, and is tempted to people the ghastly realm which it has made with ghastlier shapes. Pure idealism is as sterile as pure realism is revolting; and if we are to idealize the universe, we must first accept it as an organic and radiant reality.—W. M—l.
JAMBLICHUS of Apamea, a philosopher, lived in the time of the Emperor Julian, with whom he was intimate, and who commends him very highly in one of his epistles.—B. H. C.
JAMES. The sovereigns of this name follow in the alphabetical order of their respective countries:—
KINGS OF ARRAGON.
James (Jayme) I. of Arragon, son of Pedro II., was born in 1208. On the death of his father in 1213, his uncles Sancho and Fernando carried on a series of intrigues to gain the sovereign power. At the age of thirteen he was married to Eleanor, daughter of Alfonso IX. of Leon, by whose aid, and by the assistance of some of his faithful barons, he was enabled to cause his authority to be fully recognized in 1227. The military exploits of his reign are the conquest of the Balearic isles, and the subjugation of the Moorish kingdom of Valencia in 1238, A revolt in the latter province in 1256 was followed by the forcible expulsion of all the mahomedans. In 1275 he was again called to defend Valencia against a threatened invasion of the Moors; and he is said to have died of rage at a defeat experienced by his troops. The reign of James I. was distracted by the discord between his sons. The eldest, Alonzo, after rebelling against his father, died in 1260; a natural son, Sancho, was drowned by order of his legitimate son, afterwards Pedro III. The harshness of his conduct towards Alonzo, and his unbounded licentiousness, diminish the respect we must feel for him as a general and administrator.
James (Jayme) II. of Arragon, son of Pedro III. king of Arragon and Sicily, born in 1260; succeeded to the latter crown on the death of his father in 1286, and to the throne of Arragon on the death of his elder brother, Alfonso, in 1291. His brother Frederic was chosen king of Sicily; but James, who married a daughter of Charles of Naples, bound himself to aid that king in asserting his claims to the throne—an obligation which was but partially fulfilled. He took an important part in the troubles of Castile, and obtained a portion of the kingdom of Murcia as his reward. He likewise received from the pope the titular sovereignty of Sardinia and Corsica, which he made good by arms. He was a skilful legislator, and a patron of letters. He died in 1327.—F. M. W.
KINGS OF ENGLAND.
James I. of England, only child of Queen Mary and Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, was born in the castle of Edinburgh on the 19th of June, 1566. The murder of Darnley, the marriage of Mary to Bothwell, her surrender to the insurgent barons at Carberry, her imprisonment in Lochleven castle, and her compulsory abdication of her crown in favour of her son, all took place in little more than a year after the birth of the prince. James was crowned at Stirling on the 29th of July, 1567. The earl of Mar was appointed his governor, and the castle of Stirling selected as his place of residence. The general charge of his education was intrusted to Alexander Erskine, Mar's brother; and when the young prince attained the age of four, the celebrated George Buchanan, Patrick Young, and the two abbots of Cambuskenneth, were appointed his preceptors. Under the stern rule of Buchanan, whose strictness and severity made an indelible impression on the mind of his pupil, James attained to great proficiency in classical learning, and became an accomplished scholar though a great pedant. During the long minority of the young prince, the kingdom was governed by successive regents—the earls of Moray, Lennox, Mar, and Morton, having in turn filled that office. When James reached his thirteenth year, the regency of Morton had become so unpopular, that a general wish was entertained that the young king should take the administration of affairs into his own hands. Morton was therefore compelled to resign the regency in 1578, and James assumed the reins of government, assisted by a council of twelve peers. He had already begun to exhibit his excessive attachment to favourites—a weakness which continued with him through life; and he soon fell into the hands of Esme Stewart, Lord D'Aubigny—a relative of his own whom he created Duke of Lennox—and of Captain James Stewart (afterwards earl of Arran), the second son of Lord Ochiltree. The latter, who was an ambitious, intriguing, unprincipled man, obtained a complete ascendancy over both the king and the duke, brought about the trial and execution of Morton, completely alienated the clergy, and disgusted the whole nation by his rapacity and profligacy. A party of the nobles headed by the earl of Gowrie, provoked beyond bearing by the conduct of the two favourites, formed a conspiracy to rescue the king from their hands; and having contrived to make themselves master of his person at the castle of Ruthven, expelled Lennox and Arran from the court and took possession of the government. James, however, though he affected a degree of contentment with his new ministers, was yet indignant at the restraint put upon him by Gowrie and his associates, and after the lapse of ten months succeeded in making his escape. On becoming his own master, he acted for a time with great moderation; but his profligate favourite Arran at this juncture returned to court, and soon regained his baleful influence over the facile monarch. By his advice vindictive measures were adopted against the Gowrie faction, the earl himself was brought to the scaffold, and his associates were driven into banishment. The insolence, venality, and tyranny of Arran soon became intolerable; he was once more and finally expelled from court by the confederate lords, and stripped of his titles and estates, October, 1585. A new government was formed, of which the leaders of the English party, the earls of Glammis, Mar, and Angus, and Lord Arbroath, were the prominent members; and a few months later (July, 1586), a treaty offensive and defensive was concluded between England and Scotland. In October of the same year. Queen Mary, the mother of James, after an imprisonment of nearly twenty years, was brought to trial and condemned to death, and the sentence was carried into effect on the 7th of February, 1587. Between her condemnation and her execution James made considerable exertions to save his mother's life; but though he expressed great resentment when she was put to death, he was unwilling to risk the loss of his pension and of his succession to the English throne, and very soon allowed himself to be pacified by the artful apologies of Elizabeth. He therefore continued on terms of friendship with his crafty neighbour, firmly rejected all the overtures of the Spanish king to induce him to assist in the invasion of England, and co-operated zealously with Elizabeth in repelling the attack of the Armada. In 1589 James was married to the Princess Anne, the second daughter of Frederick II., king of Denmark. With an unwonted exercise of courage, James proceeded in person to Upsala in Norway to meet his bride, who after having put to sea, had been driven back to this place by a storm, and there the marriage was solemnized on the 24th November. The Scottish king remained in Denmark upwards of six months, heartily enjoying the "heavy-headed revels" which were customary in that country. He returned to Scotland on the 20th May, 1590, and found that during his absence his kingdom had enjoyed unwonted tranquillity under the firm and sagacious rule of the celebrated Robert Bruce of Kinnaird. That tranquillity was first disturbed by the turbulent Francis Stewart, earl of Bothwell (a grandson of James V.), who at the head of a strong body of his retainers attacked the palace of Holyrood during the night of the 27th December, 1591, set fire to several
