the nation. Having solemnly promised, by decree of May 22, 1815, a new and liberal constitution, Frederick William almost immediately disowned this concession in all possible ways, and by all means in his power tried to revoke it. In this respect there was a silent struggle between him and his subjects up to the time of his death, and it was this alone which dimmed the lustre of his government, and prevented him from being universally acknowledged one of the best, if not the best, of Prussian kings. Much wise legislation, however, all more or less emanating directly from the king, distinguished the long period of peace which followed the congress of Vienna. In 1818 he founded the university of Bonn, and at the same time increased largely the sums devoted to national education throughout the kingdom; and in the following years he made great, but unhappily unsuccessful attempts, to bring about a complete union between the reformed and the Lutheran churches. Commerce, at the same time, received a powerful impulse by the establishment of the German Zollverein; and all manner of industrial undertakings were encouraged to an extent never before witnessed in Prussia. The king was personally fond of the society of distinguished thinkers; he called to Berlin the illustrious Fichte, who, under the accusation of being an atheist, had been driven from the university of Jena; and he delighted in visiting Kant in his humble abode at Königsberg. On November 9, 1824, Frederick William married, in so-called morganatic fashion, the Countess Augustine von Harrach, born August 30, 1800—a lady who, the very opposite of Queen Louise in this respect, is generally believed to have influenced him in an illiberal manner, and to have been one of the instigators of that retrograde movement visible in the government of Prussia during the latter years of the king's reign. Frederick William died June 7, 1840, aged seventy years. He was in the enjoyment of good health up to almost the last moment, being a man of singularly robust habit, and well formed and symmetrical in every limb. His manner of living at all times was of the most simple kind; he always ate and drank with great moderation, slept on a hard straw mattress, and mostly dressed in a long blue coat, buttoned up to the neck, without embroidery or ornament of any kind. He was in the habit of rising very early in the morning, employing his first hours in study, and sometimes in attempts at composition. The fruits of these literary labours, as far as the world has been made acquainted with them, are—"Luther in Beziehung auf die preussische Kirchenagende von 1822 und 1823," published (anonymously) at Berlin in 1827; and "Reminiscenzen aus der Kampagne, 1792 in Frankreich," and "Journal meiner Brigade in der Kampagne am Rhein, 1793," printed after the king's death. Statues in honour of Frederick William III. were erected in Posen in 1843; in Potsdam in 1845; in Berlin in 1849; and in Königsberg in 1851.—F. M.
Frederick William IV., King of Prussia, eldest son of Frederick William III., was born at Berlin, October 15, 1795. His education was superintended by a galaxy of distinguished men, among them Ancillon and Delbruck for philosophic studies; Generals Scharnhorst and Knesebeck for military science; Savigny, Ritter, and Lancezolle, for law and political economy; and Rauch and Schinkel for drawing and the plastic arts. Under these great masters the prince made rapid progress, and at the age of eighteen was reputed one of the most accomplished youths of Germany. He was with the Prussian army during the wars of 1813-14, but, on account of his youth, held no command. Peace having been restored to Europe, the prince devoted himself more actively than ever to his studies—above all, to artistic pursuits. He made a journey to Paris, and afterwards, in 1828, to Italy, for the express purpose of examining works of art, in company with the most celebrated artists of the age. Returning from Italy, he was nominated governor-general of Pomerania, in which office he gained the love and esteem of the whole population. When at the death of his father, June 7, 1840, he ascended the throne, there was universal joy in Prussia, the people founding on him the highest hopes, and greeting him as the inaugurator of a new era of happiness and prosperity. His first acts seemed to justify these high expectations. He proclaimed a general amnesty for political criminals, decreed a partial freedom of the press, took liberal politicians, such as Boyen and Eichhorn, into his councils, gave professorships to the celebrated brothers Grimm, recalled the free-spoken Arndt, and took other steps similarly indicative of his sympathy with the leaders of political and social progress. In less than three years after his accession to the throne, however, all this was completely changed. The liberal advisers by whom Frederick William was surrounded, fell into disgrace, one after the other; and their places were filled by men known for their reactionary sentiments, such as Professor Stahl, Hassenpflug, and others. These retrograde tendencies were in full force when the revolution of March, 1848, gave them a momentary check. The populace of Berlin having conquered the royal guards in a most sanguinary street fight, the king was compelled to come down from his palace, and, with bare head beside the corpses of the fallen insurgents, had to swear that he would grant a liberal constitution. For a short time it seemed as if Frederick William was really inclined to keep his word; but no sooner had the popular excitement subsided, than he revoked his concession, and modified the constitution of 1848 to such an extent as to make it the mere shadow of a popular representation. The king, at the same time, drew closer to Russia; and the counsels of the court of St. Petersburg completely swayed that of Berlin. This created throughout the country great dissatisfaction, which, however, changed into personal sympathy for the king when it became known that his mental faculties were in a very disordered state. Frederick William, rumour asserted, had, partly in consequence of early excesses, and partly on account of the depressing influence of his ultramontane and pietistic friends of later years, fallen into a deep melancholy, which so worked on his mind as totally to unfit him for the business of government. This rumour was confirmed by a royal decree of October 23, 1857, which authorized Prince William of Prussia, brother of the king, to undertake the government of the country, under the title of regent, for three months. At the end of the term the appointment was continued for another three months, then for six months, and ultimately for an indefinite period, the king having become a hopeless lunatic, incapable of recognizing his own relations. Frederick William was married November 29, 1823, to Princess Elizabeth of Bavaria, born November 13, 1801, daughter of the late King Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria. There was no issue of this marriage. The king's life was attempted twice: first, July 26, 1847, by one Tschech, burgomaster of a small East-Prussian town; and, secondly. May 22, 1850, by a discharged soldier named Sefeloge, when the king was slightly wounded. He died January 1, 1861.—F. M.
* Frederick William Nicholas Charles, son of the afore-mentioned Frederick William Louis, regent of Prussia, was born 18th October, 1831. His mother is the daughter of the grand-duke of Weimar. Prince Frederick William received a military education, and was early invested with important offices in the army. Some incidents of his early life have transpired which exhibit his character and ability in a most favourable light. As likely to succeed to the throne of a protestant country, the suit which he preferred at the court of England for the hand of the princess royal was favoured by the people of this country, and their marriage, January 25th, 1858, was an event attended by extraordinary popular rejoicings. The princess royal, Victoria Adelaide Maria Louisa, was born 21st Nov., 1840.—J. S., G.
III. DENMARK AND SWEDEN.
Frederick I., King of Denmark and Norway, was born in 1471. He was a younger son of Christian I., and uncle to Christian II. In 1490 he became duke of Holstein; and in 1522, when the intolerable tyranny of Christian II. led to a revolt, Frederick was invited to assume the crown. He hesitated for some time, as the supporters of the deposed monarch were still numerous; but finally he accepted, and was proclaimed king by a diet assembled at Viborg. He found it necessary to secure the fidelity of his partisans by signing a constitution, which reserved to the nobles their rights of feudal jurisdiction, and even of insurrection, should the king exceed his powers; whilst he was also obliged to promise the clergy his assistance against the Lutherans. This "constitution," like others of its kind, was known to the Danes by the significant name of "haandfæstning" (hand-fastening). The attempts made by Christian to regain the throne were futile; and as Frederick had the wisdom to abandon his untenable claim to the sovereignty of Sweden, then ruled by Gustavus Vasa, the remainder of his reign was peaceful. The Reformation made rapid progress. Frederick, as soon as his hands were loose, countenanced the efforts of the Lutherans, and himself adopted their creed; the scriptures, translated into Danish, were freely circulated; and
