The Mexican masses had no tradition of democracy. For three centuries they had been slaves to a foreign power. Since national independence, they had been torn by war. Their only political knowledge was loyalty to military leaders. "To assume that one-tenth of the qualified voters participated in the late popular elections, is a liberal estimate."[1] Even the small middle class trusted more in force than in parliamentary rule. The people were just emerging from illiteracy, and industrially were of the middle ages.[2] They had been literally starved by an exploitation that did not afford them enough food to maintain physical strength. When the chance for betterment came, they were mentally and physically unable to break away from serfdom.
Capitalism in Europe and the United States had reached the imperialistic stage. The great industrial expansion that followed the civil war in the United States was under headway. Mexico, one of the richest undeveloped fields in the world, was easily accessible to its powerful neighbor. The proximity of the United States and her eagerness to exploit new fields, which had helped the constitutionalists to win the war, now contributed to their overthrow.
Under these circumstances it is hardly conceivable that constitutional government could hold out. Before it would have time to establish itself and develop, the surplus wealth of the more highly industrialized nations would overflow and sweep it away. It is possible, however, that with wiser procedure, more might have been accomplished for the Mexican people.
During the period of their administration, the constitutionalist leaders were active in political re-
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