secured by the constitution of 1857, exerted a very potent influence in the downfall of Diaz. Further, labour conditions were such that a large majority of the Mexicans lived in abject misery.
"Finally, the failure to provide an adequate system of public education impeded the healthy growth of the body politic. It prevented the development of a real public sentiment, which should exert a salutary effect upon the Government."
In April, 1916, a clash occurred between the civilian population of Parral (Mexico) and United States troops, The Collision
at Parral.who incautiously and unnecessarily entered the township. Carranza, by this time recognised by the United States by the title of "First chief of the de facto Mexican Government,” pleaded for the withdrawal of United States troops from Mexican soil, and stated that his forces were now quite competent to pursue and capture Villa and his followers. Villa was, indeed, the bone of contention, for he had destroyed much American property, had intimated his hatred of the Gringos, and his intention of despoiling them wherever he encountered them. As an American note to Carranza said—
"Despite repeated and insistent demands that military protection should be furnished to Americans, Villa only carried on his operations, constantly approaching closer and closer to the border.… His movements were not impeded by troops of the de facto Government, and no effectual effort was made to frustrate his hostile designs against Americans.
“Yet the Mexican authorities were fully cognisant of his movements.… Villa's unhindered activities culminated in the unprovoked and cold-blooded attack upon American soldiers and citizens in the town of Columbus on the night of 9th March, the details of which do not need repetition here in order to refresh your memory with the heinousness of the crime. After murdering, burning, and plundering, Villa and his bandits, fleeing south, passed within sight of the Carranza
