NEW BOOKS. 271 practical, and written in a style which is pleasant, and at times even colloquial ; but the book, as a whole, is not very systematic ; and it is not easy to see how the author's psychological views afforded him that basis for his theory for which, as he tells us, he sought in vain in the writings of professed psychologists. Dr. Baerwald's first object was to find out how far the system of education prevailing in the German Gymnasia succeeds in developing the mental powers. He complains that in these schools the principle of formal education is exaggerated to such an extent that the educational value of the subjects taught is measured by their difficulty. With a view to preparing .the way for a more rational theory of education, he undertook the task of investigating and classifying the human faculties, and, further, of referring the mental powers, or at least some of them, to particular psychical activities. Clearness of thought is "localised " hi psychological synthesis, concentration of thought in apperception, " combining " imagination in association by likeness. The intellectual faculties are divided into those which enable us to have ideas and those which enable us to develop and form the ideas which we have. This distinction is not altogether clear. We are told that in reading a badly written book the reader is obliged to fill up gaps in the chain of thought by ideas of his own ; while " intuitive imagina- tion," such as Schiller, for instance, possessed, consists in "forming" concrete ideas already given, and making them "mentally plastic ". Dr. Baerwald's best instance of the former class of powers is the eloquence of intoxication, but that, as he remarks, can hardly be regarded as a Begabung. But the classification to which the author mainly adheres is based on the distinction between higher and lower powers. The highest are the faculty of combining (Kombinationsgabe) and logical acuteness ; next to these are intuitive imagination and the faculty of observation. The list of inferior faculties comprises receptivity, mother- wit, rapidity of thought, " disponibility " of memory, which enables a man to have his ideas ready to hand when they are wanted, Umsicht, the power of taking a variety of ideas into consideration at once, and Ubersicht, the power of taking a general survey of the ideas which are present to the mind. Lowest of all is carefulness (Sorgfalt), by means of which the man of inferior intelligence may sometimes succeed in concealing his deficiencies. Genius occasionally means the abnormal development of the faculties which are possessed by the average man, but more often it is one-sided and consists in the development of the higher faculties at the expense of the lower. The inability of great thinkers to see a joke is to be accepted as a necessary evil ! The author's main conclusions with regard to the question of formal education are that the education given in schools in which this principle prevails requires the exercise only of the lower faculties, and therefore affords no criterion of real ability, and, on the other hand, that the lower faculties are much more susceptible than the higher to development by education. The teaching of "formal " subjects, especially mathematics, has its uses ; but it is of most importance that the pupil should acquire a knowledge of what is practically useful to him, and should learn to read for himself, and to think for himself. Dr. Baerwald especially recom- mends the practice of making boys write essays in their own language. He objects strongly to the teaching of Greek and Latin, and holds the unusual opinion that translation into foreign languages does not con- tribute to a real knowledge of them. He admits that the boys in the Gymnasia are overworked, but attributes this entirely to the choice of formal subjects, and to the "leathern method " of teaching.
