stands in decided contradiction to the end of the process, which is found in the surrender of the individual to the absolute. These three, asceticism, mysticism, and metaphysics, are inseparably connected; where one appears in history, we find the others.
According to Descartes there are four elements necessary for judgment: (1) ideas; (2) the perception; (3) the decision of the will; (4) the determination of the will in an affirmative or negative direction. The ideas, as ideas of subject and predicate, form the material of judgment; the perception of the ideas, as the activity proceeding from the intellect, is a necessary condition of judgment. The will, finally, as active power, completes the act of judgment, and in affirming or denying the connection of ideas constitutes the act of judgment. Descartes distinguishes sharply two different classes of judgment, true and false. Truth and falsehood are only found in judgments. Ideas can only be called true and false in so far as they give occasion to true or false judgments. Truth and error are to be found neither in the ideas nor in the will, but only in the union of these in a judgment. The understanding is limited in its sphere, while the will is free and subject to no such limitations. Every judgment is thus a voluntary act, and so arises the possibility of error. It is clear that Descartes has rather dealt with a moral lack of veracity than explained the nature of error. Also, this explanation itself is in evident contradiction with other passages in his works, e.g., when he shows that illusions of sense may be the source of involuntary error. Although Descartes makes freedom and will identical, yet according to his own view the will possesses authority over the confused ideas, but it is in its turn controlled by the clear and distinct knowledge of the understanding.
