since no absolute criterion for consciousness in any organism other than one's self can be given. Earthworms, however, apparently possess some capacity to profit by experience. Within the past year Yerkes has reported on the training of an earthworm which in a surprisingly short time acquired the habit of escaping successfully from a very simple maze. These results, should they prove true for other individuals, suggest a certain degree of consciousness in these creatures as a basis of their ability to learn. It is, therefore, not impossible that certain of the reflexes of earthworms may be associated with conscious states, even though these states may be of a very low order.
But, though the reflexes of the lower animals show some features that suggest consciousness, it is not probable that this state is anything like as characteristic of these simple forms as of the more complex ones. Certainly some of the performances of these more primitive beings have every mark of the unconscious reflexes of our own bodies. Thus bees that have been artificially hatched and have never seen the colony at work make as perfect comb as though they had learned the art by having been co-workers in an established hive. Such bees, moreover, will not only build comb such as they themselves were hatched from, but will shape a queen cell, a form with which they have had absolutely not the least acquaintance in the past. Thus the very complex operation of comb-building in the bee resembles our own unconscious inborn reflexes, such as the constriction of the pupil and the movements of the digestive tube, rather than our voluntary operations, and this is probably true of many of the activities of the lower animals. In fact, it seems fair to conclude that, though such animals as the insects, crabs, and even the worms, possess a nervous system composed of elements similar to those in the higher forms, their reflexes are much more mechanical and less associated with anything that can be called a conscious state than are those of the higher forms. In other words, these lower animals are more in the nature of reflex machines than are the higher forms, though they are not, as some investigators would have us believe, exclusively so.
But if the nervous system in many of the lower animals is composed of elements similar to those in the higher forms, and exhibits activities not unlike our own, are there not still more primitive animals in which this system shows a real reduction and exhibits a condition which marks the actual beginnings of nervous organization? Such primitive forms have long been supposed to exist among the cœlenterates and are well represented by the sea-anemones.
Sea-anemones are sack-like animals with a single opening leading into the digestive cavity and serving both as mouth and anus. This opening is usually surrounded by a cluster of tentacles. The living body of the sea-anemone consists of the thin membranous wall that
