to the Duke of Mantua (where he was choirmaster from 1601), and began publishing canzonets and madrigals in 1583, showing sympathy with the newer features of composition. After at least thirty years' experience as player and composer, and after great success in 1607-8 with his first three dramatic works, in 1613 he was made choirmaster at St. Mark's in Venice, where he remained in honor till his death. For several years he was engrossed in sacred music, though continuing secular writing in small forms, but returned to the opera in 1627-30 and again in 1639-42 (after the opening of the first opera-house). Of his 12 dramas only 4 are extant, Orfeo (1607, text by Striggio), Il ballo dell' ingrate (1608, dance-play, text by Rinuccini), Il ritorno d' Ulisse (1641, text by Badoar, known in a form perhaps not authentic), and L'incoronazione di Poppea (1642, text by Busenello). Of the most famous, Arianna (1618, text by Rinuccini), only a fragment remains.
Orfeo marks a great advance on previous experiments. The staple form is still the recitative, but it is more declamatory, with passages of sustained melody looking toward the later aria, and there are frequent choruses and instrumental numbers, a fanfare prelude and many ritornelli. The accompaniments are diversified, including hints of novel effects and some interesting contrasts between groups of instruments, but the parts are not usually written out—simply indicated by a figured bass. The orchestra was extraordinary—2 harpsichords, 2 large lutes, 2 violins, 10 tenors, 2 viole di gamba, 2 bass viols, a double harp, 3 trumpets, 2 cornets, a clarion, a small flute and three portative organs.
In the later works special effects appeared for the first time, like the tremolando and the pizzicato, and in the last there are dialogues, duets and a trio, besides many solos, but no chorus.
At the outset the musical drama was wholly dependent upon
the extravagance of wealthy individuals, and was strictly private.
With the establishment of opera-houses it became a public
amusement and a source of musical education. Thus was opened
a new field for singers and instrumentalists, since every opera-house
made up its company afresh at intervals. Thus, too, was
called into being a new class of organizers, the managers or impresarios,
whose business it was to cater to the public taste,
especially by 'discovering' new works or performers. The development
of the musical drama and the opera-house business
have been closely interdependent ever since.
The first Venetian opera-house (1637) was that of S. Cassiano, under
the management of Ferrari and Mannelli, respectively the librettist and
the composer of the first work given. Before 1700, no less than 16 opera-houses
had been started in Venice, half of them before 1670. Other
cities followed much more slowly—for example, Rome had but 3 in
1700 (the first founded in 1661), while Bologna had none till 1680. But
operas were often given in theatres, so that the institution spread more
rapidly than its edifices.
