himself to the standards of the operatic world as he found them, he had also already become an independent student.
In 1762, with the help of the cultivated Calzabigi as librettist, he boldly struck out on a new line with Orfeo ed Euridice, though his lack of full conviction is evidenced by considerable admixture of conventional methods. The public was at first bewildered with this work, but finally accepted it with interest. Though not hesitating to continue his old style and to repeat old works, in 1767 Gluck took the second step in the new path with Alceste (text by Calzabigi), and now used his fresh ideas with more confidence. Its reception was not enthusiastic, for the theme was gloomy, the treatment austere and the climax poor (later made worse by a French alteration). Paride ed Elena followed in 1770 (text by Calzabigi), with a remarkable revelation of latent power in romantic lyricism. Gluck had now secured a considerable following at Vienna, especially among the thoughtful, but his innovations were also sharply criticised.
In 1774, after considerable diplomatic correspondence with the authorities of the Paris Opéra, Gluck appeared there with Iphigénie en Aulide (text adapted from Racine), the fourth work in the new style and not one of the best. It was produced only after incredible difficulties, owing to the incompetence of the musical forces and the machinations of enemies, at the end overcome only by the personal intervention of Marie Antoinette (who had been Gluck's pupil at Vienna). The work made a hit, secured for the composer munificent rewards at Paris and a new court office at Vienna, and led at once to the recasting of other works for the Parisian stage, some of which succeeded, while others failed. In 1776 Gluck's opponents undertook to overthrow him by importing the veteran Piccinni as a rival, thus bringing on the brief but famous war between the partisans of the old and new ideas. In 1777 Gluck produced Armide (text by Quinault, written for Lully, 1686), a work of much romantic beauty, which, however, did not at once succeed. In 1778 both Piccinni and Gluck were induced to write upon the same libretto, Iphigénie en Tauride (by Guillard), Gluck's version being soon ready, while Piccinni's was delayed till 1781. This masterpiece crowned his success, and was really the last, for his remaining works were feeble. His health began to break and his last years were spent quietly at Vienna. After his death in 1787, Piccinni vainly tried to collect funds to establish an annual concert in his rival's memory.
In all, Gluck wrote over 30 operas, of which 7 belong to the epoch-making series. His other works, sacred or instrumental, are unimportant, though neither few nor small.
Personally, he was impetuous and strong-willed, though a tactful manager of men. Intellectually, he was gifted and his ideas were matured by careful study. That he was vain of his talents and perhaps miserly with his wealth are defects not always absent from an artistic temperament.
153. The Purpose of his Innovations.—The central purpose of
Gluck's reaction was to restore to the opera its legitimate
dramatic truth and power. This involved many changes from
the artificial procedures that had become traditional, and a pro-
