and Spain, and of the Pope, but reverses set in from the fruitless invasion of Russia (1812), and the end of his dream of dominion came with the battles of Leipsic (1813) and Waterloo (1815). All sorts of collateral struggles grew out of these, such as the War of 1812 between England and America.
When at length Napoleon was displaced, the demand for popular liberty under constitutional guarantees again became insistent, showing itself in repeated revolutionary undertakings in different countries far on into the middle of the century—of which the end is not yet.
The principal rulers of the period were, in France (besides Napoleon), Louis XVIII. (1814-24); in Austria, Francis I. (1792-1835); in Prussia, Frederick William III. (1797-1840); in England, George III. (1760-1820) and George IV. (1820-30); and in Russia, Alexander I. (1801-24). Without trying to summarize the powerful literary influences of the time in any of the leading countries, we may content ourselves with recalling that in Germany now came the first impress of philosophers like Kant (d. 1804), Fichte (d. 1814) and Hegel (d. 1831), and of poets like Herder (d. 1803), Schiller (d. 1805) and Goethe (d. 1832). It was just about this time that the general advance of method began in historical and physical science which became characteristic of the whole century.
In the musical world certain salient points may be noted about
the early part of the century. First of these is the dominance
of Beethoven as an original, epoch-making genius of the first
rank—one who made himself felt immediately and whose power
has not since departed, in spite of the great changes in recent
years. Next comes the separation under Weber of the German
opera as a distinct type, incorporating into itself some of the
constructive ideas of Gluck, with much of the best instrumental
progress, and beginning to express the deeply romantic imagination
of the German peoples. Side by side with this stood a fresh
illustration of the inexhaustible vitality of Italian opera under
Rossini and others, and the equally fresh renewal of French opera
under Boieldieu and Auber. Here falls the memorable work of
Schubert, a melodist of endless fertility, especially influential in
bringing the art-form of the song to full honor. Pianism and
violinism as specialties take on new elaboration, affecting still
more the whole current of musical expression. The sensational
popular power of the virtuoso is repeatedly demonstrated, while
the activity of countless teachers, of many strong music-schools
and of choral societies, with the wider scope of business interests
in publishing music and making instruments, is creating a vast
public of musical amateurs and well-wishers. The study of
