drastic reforms were enacted by legislation. After 1848, a fever of revolution spread through central Europe. In self-defense the ruling powers drew together in coalitions, but in so doing were obliged to grant popular guarantees, such as the Prussian Constitution of 1850. Every royal house felt in danger and strove to repress republican and socialistic demands. Among the greater states, Prussia pushed steadily to the front, while Austria tightened her grip on Hungary and Italy in spite of fiery patriotic revolts. In 1851, by the famous 'Coup d'État,' the new French Empire was set up under Napoleon III. In 1853-6 occurred the exhausting Crimean War, fought by England and France in defense of Turkey against Russia. In 1859 France and Austria clashed over Italy. In 1866 Prussia made the triumphant display of strength against Austria which began the consolidation of Germany. Upon the heels of this came the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1, which united all Germany into an Empire. These last two wars indirectly led to the freedom and union of Italy in 1871. Meanwhile the British Empire was steadily advancing in power, especially because of its great colonial possessions in India, Canada and Australia. And the United States was gradually acquiring its present vast territory, being finally consolidated by the bloody Civil War of 1861-5.
The principal rulers of the period were, in France, Louis Philippe (1830-48) and Napoleon III. (1852-70); in Prussia, Frederick William IV. (1840-61) and William I. (1861-88, Emperor from 1871); in Austria, Ferdinand I. (1835-48) and Francis Joseph (1848- ); in England, William IV. (1830-7) and Victoria (1837-1901); and in Russia, Nicholas I. (1825-55) and Alexander II. (1855-81).
The period in music was not dominated by a single composer
as the preceding period had been by Beethoven. Yet several
leaders appeared whose closeness of practical touch was even
greater than Beethoven's. Among these was Meyerbeer, who
for a time continued to be the central figure in the operatic field.
Outside of this field, but potent in every other, was the indefatigable
and versatile Mendelssohn, especially notable for his services
to the cause of musical education. In the domain of
criticism and especially as the spokesman of the romantic spirit
in the best sense, Schumann held a unique position, besides
being an original composer of marked power. From about
1840 the immense vigor and genial magnetism of Liszt advanced
him into a sort of imperial leadership, which, however, he was
magnanimous enough gradually to transfer to Wagner, the time
of whose greatest public power did not arrive until after 1860.
Still more than in any previous period, the eminence of Germany
declared itself, though as the period closed it was evident that
other countries were awaking to new musical life.
