II. Consonants
31. The Hindu name for ‘consonant’ is vyañjana manifester. The consonants are divided by the grammarians into sparça contact or mute, antaḥsthā, intermediate or semivowel, and ūṣman spirant. They will here be taken up and described in this order.
32. Mutes. The mutes, sparça, are so called as involving a complete closure or contact (sparça), and not an approximation only, of the mouth-organs by which they are produced. They are divided into five classes or series (varga), according to the organs and parts of organs by which the contact is made; and each series is composed of five members, differing according to the accompaniments of the contact.
33. The five mute-series are called respectively guttural, palatal, lingual (or cerebral), dental, and labial; and they are arranged in the order as just mentioned, beginning with the contact made furthest back in the mouth, coming forward from point to point, and ending with the frontmost contact.
34. In each series there are two surd members, two sonant, and one nasal (which is also a sonant): for example, in the labial series, प् p and फ् ph, ब् b and भ् bh, and म् m.
a. The members are by the Hindu grammarians called respectively first, second, third, fourth, and last or fifth.
b. The surd consonants are known as aghoṣa toneless, and the sonants as ghoṣavant having tone; and the descriptions of the grammarians are in accordance with these terms. All alike recognize a difference of tone, and not in any manner a difference of force, whether of contact or of expulsion, as separating the two great classes in question. That the difference depends on vivāra opening, or saṁvāra closure (of the glottis), is also recognized by them.
35. The first and third members of each series are the ordinary corresponding surd and sonant mutes of European languages: thus, क् k and ग् g, त् t and द् d, प् p and ब् b.
36. Nor is the character of the nasal any more doubtful. What म् m is to प् p and ब् b, or न् n to त् t and द् d, that is also each other nasal to its own series of mutes: a sonant expulsion into and through the nose, while the mouth-organs are in the mute-contact.
