360 RUSSIA.
cnmptrol of the army and secret police ; and the fourth to public instruction and ecclesiastical affairs.
The local administration of the empire differs in different pro- vinces ; Government having always allowed conquered or annexed countries to preserve their own laws and institutions, except in so far as they were hostile to the general constitution of the empire. The Grand-duchy of Finland has a special and partially inde- pendent form of government; and the provinces wrested from Sweden by Peter the Great, Courland, and those formerly belonging to Poland, have peculiar institutions and privileges, which, however, have latterly been much modified.
The empire is divided into general governments, or vice-royalties, governments, and districts. There are, at present, 14 of the first, 51 of the second, and above 320 of the last. There are, besides, extensive districts which from the thinness of the population are not organised into regular governments, which are called provinces, or ' oblasts.' 1 At the head of each general government is a viceroy, or general-governor, the representative of the emperor, who as such com- mands the forces, and has the supreme control and direction of all affairs, whether civil or military. All the functionaries within their jurisdiction are subordinate to, and make their reports to the general- governors. They sanction or suspend the judgments of the courts, and exercise the right of pardon in a limited degree. A civil- governor, representing the general-governor, assisted by a council of regency, to Avhich all measures must be submitted, is established in each goA-ernment or province. In case of dissent, the opinion of the governor is provisionally adopted till the pleasure of the emperor with respect to the matter be ascertained. A vice-governor is appointed to fill the place of the civil-governor when the latter is absent or unwell. There is also, in each government, a council of finance under the presidency of the vice-governor.
The government of the parish, and part of the local administra- tion, is intrusted to the people, to the extent of leaving them free in matters of social interest. For this purpose, the whole country is divided into communes denominated ' Mir ' — which means both ' the village ' and ' the world ' — and these again are united into dis- tricts or ' Voloste,' embracing a population of about two thousand souls. Each of the latter divisions is presided over by an Elder, or ' Starshina,' who, in case the district consists of several villages, has above him a ' Starosta,' or head of a commune, as also a tax-collector or superintendent of public stores. All these officers .-are elected by ballot at annual assemblies by the peasants, and -from among themselves. The offices are more or less honorary, •the emoluments connected with some of them being so small as sfco ,be scarcely more than nominal. The annual assemblies for
