AVERNO AVESNES 161 more liberal than the English as regards the sub- jects of general average, but the difference con- sists not in the nature but in the application of principles. The victuals and ammunition of a ship do not contribute in a case of general aver- age, nor whatever is necessary to the persons of those on board, as wearing apparel, &c., no,r the passengers for their own safety, nor the crew for their wages, lest apprehension of personal loss should deter them from personal sacrifice. The rule of the civil law that "those things alone which pay freight contribute" is, with slight limitations, the general law on this point. The rate of contribution is in proportion to the safety obtained, according to value, not weight. The rules upon which this adjustment is made differ in different countries, and are not well settled anywhere. It is a matter of such nice calculation, that in most commercial ports the computation and adjustment of general average constitute a special branch of business, attended to by a special class of men. By the civil law, the master of the vessel was required to see to this ; and the provisions of the French ordinance are somewhat similar, but are practically dis- used, the work being performed by depecheurs, as they are called. II. Particular, an almost obsolete barbarous expression, used to signify a partial loss, which must be borne by the imme- diate loser alone. III. Petty Averages are sun- dry small charges borne in common by the own- ers of a ship and cargo, like pilotage, towage, anchorage, light money, quarantine, &c. AVERNO (anc. Avernus), a lake in Italy, about 8 m. W. of Naples, and near the ruins of ancient Cumaa. It lies in the crater of an ex- tinct volcano, and, though less than 2 m. in circumference, is of great depth. It has no natural outlet, but an artificial passage for its waters into the gulf of Baiee was made by Agrippa, who also connected it with the Lu- crine lake. This latter passage was closed by a volcanic convulsion which in 1538 cast up a hill of considerable height in the place of the latter lake. No attempt has been made to reopen the communication thus obstructed ; and as the subterranean tunnel which con- nected Averno directly with the sea has also been blocked up, the lake is again without an outlet. In ancient times, Avernus, with the wild and gloomy scenery about it, the pestilent vapors rising from its volcanic shores, and the prevailing belief in its unfathomable depth, was reputed the entrance to Hades, and was made sacred to Proserpine. By this path Ulysses, according to the legend, visited the ghosts of the dead, and here was also a famous oracle. The lake retains few of its ancient characteristics; the dense woods which an- ciently covered its banks were cut down before the time of Strabo, and the volcanic phenome- na appear to have entirely ceased. The ruins of a Roman edifice, probably a bath, are on the S. E. border of the lake. AVERROES, or Averrhoes (a corruption of IBN ROSHD), an Arabian philosopher, born in Cor- dova about 1120, died in Morocco, Dec. 12, 1198. Educated by eminent masters, he became, like his father, distinguished for his varied knowl- edge, and succeeded him in the office of mufti or chief judge in Andalusia, and subsequently held the same position in Morocco. He stood high in the esteem of successive rulers, espe- cially of Al-Mansour ; but the latter, yielding to those who could not reconcile the philosophy of Averroes with his professed devotion to the Koran, and perhaps also impelled by personal animosity, banished him for several years, hut finally restored him to his office. He wrote on astronomy, particularly on the spots of the sun, and on many other scientific subjects ; but he is chiefly celebrated as a commentator upon Aristotle and Plato. He grasped the ideas of the Greek philosophers, though he had no knowledge of the Greek language. The first complete edition of his works was published in Latin at Venice in 11 vols. (1552-'60), the commentaries filling 8 volumes, and 3 volumes containing his refutation of Algazzali's work against Greek philosophy, his great medical work, Kulliyat or improperly Colliget (of which several editions have been published), and miscellaneous treatises. As a philosopher he tended toward pantheism and materialism. His professed disciples were called Averroists. Leo X. issued a bull against his doctrines after they had been denounced by the university of Paris. Renan, in his Averrhote et VAverrho- isme (Paris, 1 852), gives a full notice of his life and works, and characterizes him as' the chief representative in the middle ages of the Peri- patetic philosophy and of freedom of thought, and as exempt from all purely dogmatic and religious bias. Among other recent works relating to his doctrines is Muller's Philosophie und Theologie t>on Averrhoes (Munich, 1859). AVERSA, a town of Italy, in the province of Terra di Lavoro, situated in a remarkably fertile region, 8 m. N. of Naples ; pop. in 1872, 21,176. It contains a cathedral and many churches and convents, a foundling hospital, and a lunatic asylum founded by Murat, which was among the first to attempt curing the insane by occupation and recreation. The sparkling white Asprino wine of Aversa is often sold as champagne, and its sweetmeats, especially almond cakes, are great delicacies. Aversa was settled by the Normans, and grant- ed in 1029 to Rainulf, one of their leaders, who received from the emperor Conrad II. the title of count of Aversa. In 1030 the inhabitants of the ancient city of Atella, the site of which is still visible in the vicinity, were removed hither. In 1061 the- county was annexed to the principality of Capua, then a papal fief. AVESNES, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Le Nord, on the Helpe, 50 m. S. E. of Lille; pop. in 1866, 3,787. It is one of the fortresses which protect France on the east, built under the reign of Louis XIV. according to the sys- tem of Vauban. It was bombarded immedi-
