610 BIBLE exile, the sacred books were subjected to n care- ful and critical examination. About the same time the written character of the ancient Hebrew was modified by the Aramaic chirog- raphy, until it took the square form, more nearly resembling the Palmyrene letters, which was adopted perhaps on account of its beauty. Simultaneously came another arrangement of the text, with a view to its public reading. Tradition had prescribed the manner in which the reader's voice should emphasize words and balance sentences, but it was long before that mode was declared by any written signs. The first step toward this was the separation of words from each other, and it was followed by the division into verses. This had been marked in poetry very early by lines or blank spaces measuring the rhythm. In prose it was intro- duced later for the convenience of the syna- gogue, and was established by the close of the period we are considering. Before this distri- bution into sentences, the necessity was felt of breaking up the text into sections of less or greater length. In this division the book of the law consisted of 669 paragraphs or "pa- rashes," and these, in the absence of headings and running indices, were known and referred to by the subject that was most prominent in each; for example, parash "Balaam," parash "Bush," or "Deluge." The text, thus writ- ten and distributed, was most jealously guard- ed. In copying it nothing must be added, no- thing taken away, nothing changed ; letters, words, verses, sections were counted. Rules were made in regard to the way in which the MSS. were to be written ; every letter that was larger or smaller, suspended or inverted, or otherwise unusual in its form, even if acci- dentally so written, was to be heedfnlly copied. Another division into larger parashes or sec- tions, adapted to the public readings on the Sabbath, was introduced at a later time. The next period in the history of the Old Tes- tament text is the Masoretic, commonly reck- oned from the 6th to the llth century. The word masora means a " collection of tradi- tions," and the main object of the laborers in this field was to gather up and arrange the critical material of an older time before the existing traditions should fade out. But the Masorites did more than this ; they aimed at completing what had been commenced before ; they would fix the reading of the text in all its parts, and their scrupulous care did much to finish and perfect it. They collated MSS., noticed critical and orthographical difficul- ties, and ventured upon conjectures of their own. Their notes were at first written in separate books; afterward for convenience they were copied upon the margin of MSS., or even at the end of a book, a practice that led gradually to vast confusion. Attempts were even made to crowd the whole Masora upon the margin of MSS., and when the space was too small, as often it was, the annotations were appended to the text or omitted entirely. Since the completion of the Masoretic period the labors of scholars have been spent in eluci- dating and perpetuating the Masoretic text. The MSS. of the Pentateuch were very care- fully revised, and some of them are very ancient. Of the other books no MSS. date back as far as the Masoretic period : four or five belong to tliu 12th century; some 50 belong to the 13th: and for the following centuries the number increases. Eminent Jewish scholars of the middle ages devoted themselves to the task of purifying the sacred text by the largest possible collation of MSS., and in their writings speak of famous copies now lost whose use they enjoyed. When the invention of printing had made easy the exact reproduction and extensive multipli- cation of copies, an attempt was made to com- pare carefully the best MSS. extant, to collate with them the Masora, and thus to bring out a true and pure Masoretic text ; an undertaking too large to be accomplished at once, and there- fore but imperfectly executed at that time. The books were produced singly. The earli- est printed portion of the Hebrew Bible, the Psalter, was done in 1477, in small folio form, very carelessly, with many abbreviations, and not a few grave omissions. Later, about 1480, it was reprinted in 12mo, without date or place, and again in the same form with an index. The whole Pentateuch, with the points, the Chaldee paraphrase, and Rashi's commentary, was printed in 1482, in folio, at Bologna. In 1486 appeared in two folios, at Soncino, the prophets, early and later, with Kimhi's com- mentary. The whole Hagiographa was printed in Naples in 1487. The entire Hebrew Bible was first printed at Soncino in 1488. It was made partly from MSS. neither very old, prob- ably, nor very good, and partly from editions of separate books already published. It con- tained many errors. Only nine copies of this edition are extant. This was strictly followed by the Gerson edition printed at Brescia in 1494, from which Luther made his translation. It was 'the parent of the first rabbinical Bible of Bomberg, 1517 and 1518, and of Bomberg's manual editions from 1518 to 1521 ; of the editions of Robert Stephens (4to, 1539-'44), and of Sebastian Monster's (Basel, 2 vols. 4to, 1536). The next independent edition prepared from a fresh comparison of MSS. was the famous Complutensian Polyglot (Complutum,
- '. ., Alcala de Henares), the work of Cardinal
Ximenes, assisted by the most eminent biblical scholars in Spain. No expense was spared to procure Hebrew MSS. from different coun- tries. The Vatican and other libraries lent their treasures ; and 14 years of preparatory labors were spent before the first volume was issued (1522). The text of the Complutensian Bible agrees closely with that of Bomberg's first edition of 1518. The third great original edition is the second of Bomberg's rabbinical Bible, printed in folio at Venice, 1525-'6. This embodies the labors of Rabbi Jacob ben Ila- yim. who revised the Masora word by word, ar-
