228 INDIA (RELIGIONS AND RELIGIOUS LITERATURE) exists, and the world does not exist ; or the world exists, and Brahma does not exist. In- asmuch as Brahma exists, and is in fact the only vastu or real existence, while all objects, especially individual souls, are only avastu, or unreal, it follows that the world does in reality not exist. Other philosophers preferred rather to sacrifice the unity of Brahma than abandon the idea of the reality of the world and of in- dividual souls. Kapila's Sankhya system fell into atheism, but did not therefore lose its orthodoxy with the Hindoos, as with them meditation and penitence are mightier than and superior to the gods. It says that if there were a god, he would be either limited or free, and in neither case could he he a creator. For if he were free from commotions and emotions, nothing could move him to create ; and if he were limited, he himself would he subject to illusions. The Sankhya explains the world as a mingling of matter and spirit, and bears in many places a strong resemblance to Aristotle's metaphysics. Its ultimate conclusion is that there is no necessity for a new birth or for trans- migrations. It seems, however, that Kapila did not relinquish the presumption of a per- sonal immortality. lie argues that in order to satisfy the longings of the human heart, there must needs be a continuing soul ; and if such a soul be denied, there cannot be a highest and final destiny in store for man. The end of all Hindoo philosophy of this period is always, however, that the ascetic, whose mind is above the things of this world and fathoms the rea- son of the existence of all things, need not wander through other bodies, but is imme- diately after death absorbed by the one great soul of the world. The masses were not in a condition to find consolation in this doctrine, but had to invent some new method of salva- tion. The Vedic sacrifices were on the point of falling into disuse, as it had been taught that they were only effectual in proportion to their cost. Buddha had in the mean time made his appearance, and rejected every kind of sacrifice. This had some effect also on the Hindoos who remained faithful to Brahman- ism. Buddhism has a human redeemer in the person of Buddha. Brahmanism, unwilling to reject the ancient gods, but believing in the efficacy of human merits derived from prayer and meditation, seized upon the idea of having human mediators, embodiments of the gods, and ushered in a series of avatars or incarna- tions. Thus Krishna was worshipped in the 3d century B. 0. as an Avatara of Vishnu. The belief that the gods were bound to fulfil the will of man if expressed in sacrifice and prayer, was naturally succeeded by the belief of this age that the gods could not execute any- thing upon earth unless they came either in hu- man or animal form. Vishnu, of whom the Vedas had little to say, was probably for this reason singled out of the ancient pantheon to be the divinity specially concerned in the welfare of man. He is described as having four hands, of which one is free, while the others hold a shell, a discus, and a club. His wife is Lakshmi or Qri, the goddess of love, grace, marriage, progeny, and wealth ; the cow is her holy rep- resentative upon earth, and the lotus her sym- bol. About this time Siva, the Mahadfeva or great god of the Dravidians, was introduced into the Brahmanical cycle of gods, by identifying him with Kudra, the god of storms. He holds a trident as the symbol of his power, a lasso or sling, an antelope, and sometimes a flame of fire in his hand. He has a third eye in the middle of his forehead, and around his neck is some- times wound a necklace of human skulls. His wife Kali, the black or devouring, also called Uma, Durga, and Parvati, has like him three eyes, a wreath of skulls on her neck, and a club in her hand. Her face is sometimes ter- rific in appearance, especially on account of the long protruding teeth. Her worship is as important and general as that of Siva himself. His sons Ganeca and Karttikeya are also ob- jects of veneration. Sivaism as phallus wor- ship became in time widely diffused among the Aryan as well as aboriginal races of India, and will be further discussed below, in the account of the modern forms of the Dravidian reli- gions. Buddhism, though after 1,000 years' struggle overcome by Brahmanism, gave new directions to its doctrines. (See BUDDHISM.) Mohammedanism was less successful in leav- ing its mark upon it. The doctrine of the in- carnation of the gods in human beings and animals now became a prominent feature of the Hindoo religion. It seems that the incar- nation of Vishnu as Krishna was taught in op- position to Buddha. An attempt was even made to represent Buddha himself as an incar- nation of the same god. Through the endeavor to unite and reconcile all the religious elements inimical to Buddhism, a Trimurti was invent- ed, or a trinity composed of the great gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. A new religious literature sprang up in the Pnranas, which were not like the Vedas removed from the people as too holy, but were written specially for them. Their contents are mythological, but they served as polemics against Buddhism, and even of one Brahmanical sect against another. There is thus no unity in modern Brahmanism. It has no hierarchy that em- braces the entire Hindoo population. In the holy city Benares, for example, worship side by side a number of sects whose doctrines are more or less at variance with each other. Denominations is perhaps a better name than sects for these divisions, as they are not mere deviations from the main Brahman religion, but distinct separations from it. The main divisions are Vishnuites and Sivaites, the for- mer exalting Vishnu, the latter Siva, above Brahma. Each division has again several di- visions within itself, probably caused by influ- ential expounders of the doctrines. These vari- ous distinctions of denominations or sects pro- duced a number of subdivisions in the caste of
