KANT 759 to serve as a new basis on which the archi- tectonics of the whole world of knowledge might be constructed. This system produced a revolution in the world of speculation. Part- ly from its profoundness, partly on account of its novel nomenclature, it was at first slight- ly noticed, and seemed in danger of lapsing into oblivion. But Kant was now thoroughly aroused, and eager in pressing the scheme, which was the product not only of his own life, but also of the chief systems which had gone before. His philosophical productivity became as remarkable as had been his previous reserve. In 1783 appeared his " Prolegomena to every future System of Metaphysics claim- ing to be a Science ;" a more popular exposi- tion, and also a more complete analysis, of the questions and problems mooted in the " Criti- cism." He then endeavored to counteract the negative results of the system of pure reason by his Orundlegung tier Metaphysik der Sitten ("Metaphysics of Ethics," 1785), and MetapJiy- siseJie Anfangsgrimde der NaturwissenscJiaft ("Metaphysical Elements of Natural Science," 1786), completing the exposition of his views in these two branches of philosophy. In 1787 the second edition of the " Criticism of the Pure Reason" was published, omitting the preface to the first edition, and altering it so as to avoid the charge of idealism which had been generally preferred against his specula- tions, identified, or rather confounded, by some opponents with the system of Berkeley. This second edition was afterward reprinted, with only verbal alterations, though considered as somewhat compromising the logic of his spec- ulations ; but in the two later editions of Kant's works, by Hartenstein and Rosenkranz, the contents of the first edition are also in- serted. The Kritik der praktischen Vernunft ("Criticism of the Practical Reason," 1788) was intended to give the positive aspect of the new philosophy in relation to God, free- dom, and immortality ; it is a further exposi- tion and application of what was given in out- line in the " Metaphysics of Ethics," and it con- tributed to give currency to his system among those who had been repelled by the apparent- ly negative conclusions of the "Criticism of the Pure Reason." Such was the rigor and such the vigor of the ethical scheme propound- ed, that for a time it swept away the unmanly eudsemonistic ethics and the sentimental sys- tems of morality. Even those who thought they detected an inconsistency between the principles of Kant's "Pure Reason" and of his " Practical Reason," hailed the latter work as containing solid proofs of the real being of those supersensible objects which the crit- ical idealism seemed to have reduced to sub- jective ideas. Its principles were made the basis of systems of divinity by such theolo- gians as Tieftrunk, Staudlin, Ammon, and somewhat later by Gabler and Wegscheider. The ethical element, the "categorical impera- tive," was held as the one fixed and saving point in the midst of the jarring and opposite principles of the different schools in philoso- phy and theology ; and this led to that ration- alism, on a moral basis, which for a long time characterized German theology, a very different form of rationalism from the one which sub- sequently prevailed. To these works, in 1790, Kant added his " Criticism of the Judgment," which developed more fully the principles of the metaphysics of the natural sciences, and supplemented many positions in his other treatises, besides giving hints, and opening points of view, which were afterward used by those disposed to go beyond the principles of the critical philosophy. With this work closed the productive metaphysical period of Kant's philosophic career. He was now 66 years old. In nine years he had put forth, in rapid suc- cession, a series of works which revived the slumbering activity of German philosophy; combated equally the abstractions of the dogmatist and the doubts of the skeptic ; set forth the transcendental grounds and elements of knowledge, and thus laid the foundation for a new metaphysics ; and planted moral science upon a definite basis, giving it fixed and uni- versal formulas, which already began to affect the construction of the science of Christian theology. His subsequent writings form, ac- cording to his own statement, the practical period of his career, applying to different spe- cial sciences the principles he had elaborated. His philosophy was already expounded by Kiesewetter in Berlin, Schmid in Jena, Jakob in Halle, Born in Leipsic, and many others in different parts of Germany. Its more definite conflict with the orthodox theology was aroused by the publication of his essays on " Religion within the Bounds of Mere Reason," contrib- uted to the Berlin Monatsschrift, then pro- hibited by the censor (reestablished in 1788), and issued in a volume in 1793. Political in- fluences were also concerned, for Kant was in sympathy with the French revolution. Frede- rick William II. sent to him a missive indicating his displeasure, and the philosopher was obliged to give a pledge that he would not lecture on religious subjects " so long as he should be a subject of his majesty," the promise being so worded that he considered himself released from it on the death of that monarch. But he was so irritated by this governmental inter- ference, that in 1794 he gave up all his private lectures, and after 1797 no longer read in the university. In 1797 appeared his "Metaphys- ics of Ethics," in two parts, viz. : the " Meta- physical Elements of Right" (law), and "of Virtue." The " Strife of the Faculties" (1798) is a review of the controversy about his reli- gious opinions, with the documents concerning it. His Anthropologie in pragmatiscJier Hin- sieht (" Anthropology in a Pragmatic Point of View") was published the same year. After this his friends and pupils became the editors of his writings : Jasche of his " Logic " (1800) ; Rink of his "Physical Geography" (1802) and
