390 FRANCE and formidable uprising, in which parties were most singularly divided. The royalists, ho- ping to seize this opportunity to regain power and prepare the way for a restoration of the monarchy, were those who began this insur- rection and the conflict against the convention ; the middle class (bourgeoisie), fearing the re- turn to power of the extreme democrats, joined the royalists ; and the convention had upon its side the army and the populace of the suburbs, the once ruling proletariat. Both sides pre- pared for a violent conflict, the royalist party having much the greater force at command. But the convention placed their troops under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte, then a young general, but of the greatest promise ; his skill and determination gave the conven- tion a complete victory (Oct. 5, the 13th Vendemiaire). During the later portion of the revolufion, and while these events oc- curred at the capital, the French army had won some successes in its war with the for- eign powers in coalition against it, partly through actual victories, partly through the mismanagement and jealousies in the ranks of its enemies. The results of these successes may be briefly summarized. Prussia, whose troops had been gradually forced to withdraw across the Rhine in 1793, had carried on the war in only a half-hearted fashion during 1794, and, jealous of Austria and not in harmony with the other powers, had withdrawn from the coalition and made peace in April, 1795. Spain had con- cluded peace in July of the same year. Bel- gium had been overrun and taken possession of by the French. The Austrians had been forced back across the Rhine ; the allied armies of England and Holland had been gradually pushed back, and although during the last few months they had shown renewed energy in the carry- ing on of the war, they had as yet accomplish- ed but little. Early in September the French army had crossed the Rhine, near Dilsseldorf, and penetrated to Frankfort, while another detachment had taken Mannheim. But this last body soon met with a defeat which great- ly tended to turn the tide ; Mannheim was re- taken and the army driven back. In France itself the Vend6e was again in insurrection. Such was the state of affairs when, on Oct. 28, 1795, the new government began, the conven- tion having been dissolved on the 26th. (See DIRECTOEY.) But the condition of things at first grew rapidly worse. England, Russia, and Austria, in a new coalition, began to carry on a more vigorous warfare. It was not until Car- not's plan for a general offensive movement of the French troops was put in operation, that the current of success was decidedly turned in favor of the French. Bonaparte was put in command of the army which was now to ad- vance against the Austrians from Italy, and the account of the campaign he there conducted in 1796 and 1797, given at length in his biog- raphy (see BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON), will show how completely he changed the condition of affairs. (For other military events under the directory, see HOOHE, JOURDAN, MASSENA, and MORE ATI.) At the truce of Leoben (April 18, 1797) France controlled all Italy; Austria sur- rendered all rights in Belgium and recognized those republics which France established. The most important internal affairs during this pe- riod were the schemes for financial improve- ment, which came to but small results. The royalist party had, however, been gradually gaining ground throughout the kingdom, and the directory was constantly absorbed in the endeavor to prevent an outbreak, which, in the prevailing condition of want and general bank- ruptcy, could not but put an end to its power; an outbreak constantly threatening both from royalists and the democratic party which had risen from the intrigues of the defeated Jaco- bins. The directory sought to preserve its own influence by using these parties as balances to one another. In the elections of 1797 the royalists made such gains as to give them a majority in the council of 500 ; and this has- tened the approaching crisis. The republicans found their support chiefly in the army ; and with the aid of this, Bonaparte being on their side, they prepared and carried out a decisive movement. On the night before Sept. 4 (18th Fructidor) the hall of the council was sur- rounded by troops and cannon. The Tuileries was occupied with little opposition. The royal- ist members of the council were arrested, and the remainder of the body pronounced a de- cree of banishment against them, and declared their elections illegal. The republicans were again in power. On Oct. 17 a formal peace was concluded with Austria at Oampo Formio, which confirmed the advantages of the truce of Leoben with some important additions. From this point the history of France becomes so en- tirely identified for nearly 18 years with that of a single man, that we may refer for all de- tails of that period to the article BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON, and confine ourselves in this place to the briefest summary of events. The bril- liant victories of the French under Bonaparte in Egypt and their simultaneous defeats on other theatres of war (1798-'9) prepared the way for those acts which were to make him the ruler of the nation. When, on his re- turn from the East, the young general over- threw the vacillating directorial government with the two councils, and formed a new con- stitution, his course was generally approved. Chosen first consul for ten years, Dec. 13, 1799, he broke up the coalition which had been formed against France by his victory at Marengo, June 14, 1800; forced Austria and the German empire to conclude the peace of Lunevillein 1801, and England that of Amiens in 1802; and by a concordat with the pope reestablished Christian worship in France. Consul for life, Aug. 2, 1802, then hereditary emperor, May 18, 1804, he reformed and re- organized legislation at home by the forma- tion of the civil code, the organization of
