celain (Saxony and Berlin), mathematical and astronomical instruments (Munich and Berlin), clocks (Baden), &c. Brewing is one of the most extensive branches of industry, especially in Bavaria. There were in the year 1870-'71 in the empire (exclusive of Lorraine) 302 beet sugar manufacturing establishments (227 in Prussia, 35 in Anhalt, 25 in Brunswick, 5 each in the Thuringian states and Würtemberg, 4 in Bavaria, 1 in Baden), which made 4,876,000 cwt. of sugar.—The foreign commerce of Germany is of great importance. The total value of imports in 1870 was estimated at $403,200,000, of exports at $345,600,000. The present customs law of the German empire bears date July 1, 1869; a new tariff was introduced on Oct. 1, 1870. All transit duties have been abolished; the duties on imports have been greatly reduced; of exports only rags are subject to a duty. The free towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck, are the principal outlets of German commerce. Hamburg holds the third rank of all European ports, London and Liverpool only being superior. The income of the Zollverein in 1871 was $22,900,000. The merchant navy of Germany is larger than that of any other country except England and the United States. It numbered in December, 1871, 5,122 vessels (of which 179 were steamers), of an aggregate tonnage of 1,305,000. The number of vessels entering the German ports in 1871 was 68,155, of 8,735,000 tons; the number of vessels cleared 67,471, of 8,364,000 tons. The principal articles of export are wool, hops, grain, cattle, linen yarn, skins and hides, glass ware, and antimony, to England; iron and steel wares, zinc, coal, lumber, hops, hemp, flax and seed, alcohol, and cattle, to France; grain, timber, coal, wine, leather, wool, metals, woollen and cotton fabrics, hosiery, hardware, china, and glass ware, to Holland; wool, wine, and salt, to Belgium; grain, salt, and brandy, to Switzerland; seeds, fruit, preserves, and sugar, to Sweden and Russia; linen and cotton goods, ribbons, and hosiery, to Italy, Spain, and Portugal; wine, cotton, woollen, linen, and silk goods, hardware, glass ware, toys, &c., to America. The imports are, besides all kinds of raw material (cotton, pig iron, copper, coal, &c.), coffee, sugar, rice, wine (from France and Hungary), cloth, laces, machines, the finer qualities of silk fabrics, jewelry, &c. The silver standard prevailed in Germany until the establishment of the empire, when the gold standard was adopted. The unit in the northern states was the Thaler (30 thalers to 1 Zollverein pound of silver, equal to 1.389 lb. avoirdupois); in the western the Gulden Rheinisch or Rhenish florin (52½ to 1 lb. of silver). The gold coins common to all Germany were the crown (50 to 1 lb. of fine gold) and the half crown; their value was regulated by commerce, and averaged about 91⁄6 thalers ($6 58) the crown. These coins will be received at their old value until Jan. 1, 1875, when they will be superseded. According to the new law for the uniformity of the coinage throughout the empire, published in 1872, the gold coins of the empire will be in future the twenty-mark (69¾ to 1 lb. of fine gold), ten-mark, and five-mark; the silver coins, the five-mark (20 to 1 lb. of fine silver), two-mark, one-mark, 50 pfennige (200 to 1 lb. of fine silver), and 20 pfennige; the nickel coins, ten pfennige and five pfennige; the copper coins, two pfennige and one pfennig. The French metrical system of weights and measures has been adopted, and made compulsory from Jan. 1, 1872.—The railways of Germany belong to the “Association of German Railway Companies,” which was established in 1846, and also embraces various railways of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and of the Netherlands. The aggregate length of the German railways in connection with the association which were in operation on Jan. 1, 1873, was 13,643 m., of which 8,482 m. belonged to Prussia, 1,910 to Bavaria, 767 to Würtemberg, 689 to Baden, 703 to Hesse, and 513 to Alsace-Lorraine. The constitution of the empire obliges the particular governments to make the railways of their states a uniform part of the general German railway system, and authorizes the central government to build new roads even without the consent of the particular government, whenever the defence of Germany or the interests of the common traffic require it. The aggregate number of locomotives employed by the association in 1868 was 6,373; of tenders, 5,897. The total number of passengers carried was 117,000,000, and the aggregate earnings were $166,000,000. The administration of postal affairs and telegraphs (except those of Bavaria and Würtemberg) also belongs to the central government; the surplus of receipts over expenditures flows into the imperial exchequer. The German-Austrian and Luxemburg postal union also embraces the Austro-Hungarian monarchy; the German-Austrian telegraph union, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and the Netherlands. The aggregate length of the telegraph lines of the empire (inclusive of Bavaria and Würtemberg) in 1871 was 22,788 m.; that of telegraph wires, 73,813 m.; the number of stations, 3,726; the number of post offices, 6,896. Regular steamboat lines are established on the Rhine (since 1827), Danube (1833), Elbe, Oder, Vistula, Main, and Moselle. There are two transatlantic lines of steamers from Hamburg, one from Bremen, and one from Stettin.—Politically Germany is divided into 26 states, 22 of which have a monarchical and three a republican form of government. The constitution of one (Alsace-Lorraine) was in 1873 not yet decided. The kingdom of Prussia embraces about two thirds of the area of Germany, and a majority of the population (24,600,000 out of 41,000,000). Besides Prussia there are three kingdoms, Bavaria, Saxony, and Würtemberg; six grand duchies, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Saxe-Weimar, and Oldenburg;
