odical, and it was the first to discover the merit of Winckelmann the archæologist, of Hamann the mystic philosopher, and the philosophical genius of Kant, although at that time he had only written some short treatises. Shortly after the commencement of the Literaturbriefe, a new influence was infused into the literary world by Herder (1744-1803), who while at Königsberg became acquainted with Hamann and Kant, and who was known as a scholar as early as 1762. He brought to bear upon literature an almost universal knowledge, the study of the poets of all nations, an intimate acquaintance with Hebrew, Greek, and Latin writings, and above all a cosmopolitan humanitarian spirit, which, together with his poetical genius, manifested itself most suggestively in the crowning work of his life, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit. He contributed powerfully to promote the study of oriental poetry, and was the first to call attention to the beauty of the ancient popular songs of different nations, and particularly of his own. Another great impulse was given by Winckelmann (1717-'68). His examinations of the remains of ancient art and his writings modified all the old theories of the beautiful; and by his efforts, combined with those of Lessing, whose celebrated work Laokoon was elicited by Winckelmann's suggestions, the spirit of art and poetry was brought back to the genuine and simple taste of the Greeks. Heyne, the accomplished critic and commentator, propounded the theories of Winckelmann at Göttingen, then the most brilliant university of Germany. The young men there became deeply impressed with the new theories, and, under the influence of the reforms which were then initiated in religion, philosophy, literature, art, and education—in almost all departments of thought and life—founded in 1770 the Musenalmanach, a literary journal, and not long afterward a poetical union known as the Göttinger Dichterbund, or Hainbund. Klopstock became the leader and model of these enthusiastic youths, whose aim was to give a new stimulus to poetic emulation, and to oppose to conventional theories a school of poetry founded upon the inspirations of genius and humanity. Among the members of the union were Bürger (1748-'94), the author of Lenore and other wild and picturesque ballads and songs; Voss (1751-1826), one of the most learned and eloquent philologists of his day, immortalized by his translations of Homer and Virgil, and the author of one of the best German idyls (Luise); Hölty (1748-1776), whose songs became exceedingly popular; the two Stolbergs, who coöperated with Voss in familiarizing the Germans with the ancients, and who excelled in various kinds of metrical composition; Claudius, Miller, Hahn, Cramer, Gotter, and Boje. A genial poet of this period was Pfeffel (1736-1809), whom it would be difficult to class with any particular school. Goethe (1749-1832), already known to fame, and acquainted with Herder and other poets, but keeping himself aloof from all unions and parties, came forward in 1773 with Götz von Berlichingen, which was greeted as the commencement of an entirely new period in German dramatic literature. In 1774 appeared Werther's Leiden. The reformatory period of literature was now over. The revolution had set in, or the Sturm- und Drangperiode, as it was called after a drama of that name by Klinger (1753-1831), whose high-wrought tragedies and novels, as well as the writings of Schubart (1739-'91), Heinse (died in 1803), Lenz (1750-'92), and Müller (1750-1825), reflect most forcibly the excitement of this epoch. In the mean time Schiller (1759-1805) produced his Räuber, followed by Fiesco and Cabale und Liebe. These impassioned tragedies gave a new impetus to the literary excitement. His Don Carlos, however (1784), shows greater moderation, and opens a long series of tragedies in which the highest aspirations for liberty and humanity are interwoven with historical associations, expressed in language of the most classical purity. But it was only after Schiller's union with Goethe (1795) that by their combined labors German literature was brought to that classical perfection which, from a purely national, has since given to it a universal influence. Schiller, by his enthusiastic and sympathetic eloquence and tenderness, became the favorite of the people; and Goethe, with his many-sided intellect and boundless sensibilities, controlled by a strong will, encased in a body of exuberant health, and disciplined by an all-embracing culture and knowledge, became the acknowledged sovereign of German literature.—While this golden era of letters was in a great measure accelerated by the philosophic spirit of the age which had prompted the labors of Lessing and the other reformers, that spirit itself gathered strength from the light which it diffused, and in rapid succession gave birth to Kant (1724-1804), Fichte (1762-1814), Hegel (1770-1831), and Schelling (1775-1854). Lessing, especially by his comprehensive essay on the “Education of the Human Race,” Herder, Moses Mendelssohn, and Hamann are philosophical writers of great eminence. In a popular style wrote Engel, the author of Lorenz Stark, and the psychological novels of Jacobi are among the most suggestive of German prose writings. Among other prose writers are Reinhold and Barth; Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, generally considered the founder of the science of æsthetics (in Latin); Meier, the German interpreter of his theories; and Sulzer, who wrote on the same science. Abbt, Garve, Liscow, the philosopher and elegant fabulist, Lavater the physiognomist, his friend Zimmermann, and his sarcastic and polished opponent Lichtenberg; the historians Dohm, Möser, Schröckh, Schlözer, and Beck; Spittler, the celebrated Göttingen historian; Mosheim, the ecclesiastical historian; Johannes von Müller, the his-
