England, and America, which has been increased by his later works. Among German novelists of the last decade whose works possess permanent value, the leading place is undoubtedly occupied by Friedrich Spielhagen, whose Problematische Naturen, Durch Nacht zum Licht, Hammer und Amboss, and other works, enjoy a great popularity and high esteem. Heinrich Laube, Alfred Meissner (a grandson of the historical novelist), Max Ring, Edmund Hoefer, Fanny Lewald, Levin Schücking, Karl von Holtei, and others, have been prolific contributors to the recent literature of fiction. Eugenie John, best known under the nom de plume of E. Marlitt, has written several excellent novels, among which Goldelse (1866), Das Geheimniss der alten Mamsell (1867), and Reichsgräfin Gisela (1869) have been exceptionally popular, and have been translated into English. Paul Heyse is another contemporary novelist whose works have attained and deserved much success.—Among the poets who have expressed liberal political tendencies with most point are Hoffmann von Fallersleben, the author of Unpolitisclie Lieder; Herwegh, author of Gedichte eines Lebendigen; Dingelstedt, author of Lieder eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwächters; Prutz (born in 1810), Kinkel (1815), and Freiligrath. Among other recent poets who have acquired some eminence are Grabbe, Gottschall, Emanuel Geibel, Redwitz, Paul Heyse, Wolfgang Müller, Max Waldau, Gerokt, Bodenstedt (especially distinguished for his versions of Persian poetry), Böttger, Simrock, Kugler, Keller, Schefer, and Hammer, many of whom excel in ballads and songs after the style of the Swabian school. A circle of poets in Vienna cluster round Anastasius Grün (Count Auersperg), the greatest lyric poet of Austria, author of Spaziergänge eines Wiener Poeten, Schutt, Der letzte Ritter, &c. Lenau and Karl Beck were the principal and most gifted of his followers. Alfred Meissner and Moritz Hartmann belong to this school. A few other names of writers who have acquired a passing reputation by attractive or melodious verses might be added here; but during the past decade no really great poet, whose fame is likely to be lasting, has appeared in Germany. The war against France in 1870 called forth, it is true, many national and martial lyrics, among the best of which were several by Freiligrath and Geibel, as well as some stirring songs by the newer writers Gottschall, Grosse, Rittershaus, and Jensen. Several of those named in the list of recent poets given above also produced noteworthy war lyrics. Die Wacht am Rhein, written long before (about 1840) by Schneckenburger, became the popular war song of the armies of 1870; but its literary worth was small compared with many others of the national poems published during the period of its popularity.—Dramatic literature has also fallen from the high estate which it had reached through Lessing, Goethe, and Schiller. Gerstenberg (1737-1823) was the author of the high-wrought tragedy Ugolino, noticeable only for its extravagance. Among his contemporaries were some excellent dramatists and poets, as Cronegk, Leisewitz, Weisse, &c. Iffland (1759-1814), in a long series of plays, reflected the life of respectable people of the middle classes; they are eminently moral in their tone, but long and heavy. Werner (1768-1823) became the founder of the so-called tragedy of fate (Schicksalstragödie) by his piece called Der Vierundzwanzigste Februar. The imitators of his extravagant style are Müllner (1774-1829) in his Schuld, Howald (1778-1845) in his Bild, and Grillparzer (1790-1872) in his Ahnfrau. Kotzebue (1761-1819) succeeded in obtaining a higher popularity than all his contemporary playwrights. His forte was in comedy. He wrote more than 200 plays, some of which have been adapted to the English and French stage. Münch-Bellinghausen (nom de plume, Friedrich Halm) has written an excellent drama, Der Sohn der Wildniss, a national tragedy, Der Fechter von Ravenna, and other works. Maltitz, Eichendorff, Julius Mosen, Gutzkow, Laube, Hebbel, Griepenkerl, Prutz, and Brachvogel have all cultivated dramatic literature. Charlotte Birch-Pfeifer (1800-'68) dramatized a great number of stories. Karl Immermann belongs to a higher class of dramatists; his trilogy Alexis, and his mythical play Merlin, and many of his tragedies and comedies, are excellent reading plays, but they are not well suited to the stage. M. Beer's Struensee is also a work of high poetical merit. Raupach (1784-1852) was one of the most fertile of German dramatists. Eduard Duller (1809-'53) wrote several historical dramas. The comedies of Hackländer, and particularly of Benedix, display considerable ability; and among other writers of comedy are Feldmann, Töpper, Albini, Gutzkow, Gustav Freytag, and Bauernfeld. Paul Heyse, Wilhelm Jordan, Kruse, Mosenthal, Weilen, Wilbrandt, Gustav von Putlitz, and Schauffert are among the more noteworthy of the very recent dramatists. Among their works are many of positive excellence, though none for which it is possible to predict an enduring fame.—Belles-lettres, on the whole, have in recent years fallen into comparative insignificance in Germany. The most eminent minds no longer devote themselves to poetic and dramatic literature, but to the exploration of the spheres of science and learning. Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) gave a powerful impulse to almost all departments of knowledge by his “Cosmos,” “Travels,” “Views of Nature,” and the general suggestiveness of his labors. While he marks a new epoch in the pursuit of the natural sciences, another great movement was initiated in historical researches by Niebuhr (1776-1831), the illustrious historian of ancient Rome; Schlosser (1776-1861), the vigorous and truthful exponent of universal history, and particularly of the history of the 18th century; Heeren (1760-1842), the investigator of history in connection
