352 GYMNASTICS Modern gymnastics differ considerably from the exercises of the ancients. During the middle ages the knightly amusement of the tournament absorbed nearly every other sport, except the use of the quarterstaff, archery, foot racing, and wrestling, which were prac- tised in a few places ; so that gymnastics fell nearly into disuse till Basedow, in 1776, at his institution in Dessau, united bodily exercises with other instruction, which example was subsequently followed by Salzmann at his in- stitute, and from this small commencement the practice gradually extended. In the latter part of the 18th century gymnastics were exten- sively introduced into Prussian schools by Guts- Muths, who wrote several works on the sub- ject ; and about 1810 the system was still more widely spread by Jahn, who may be regarded as the founder of the present Turnvereine. Prussia being at that time impatient under Na- poleonic rule, Jahn conceived the project of bringing together the young men for the prac- tice of gymnastic exercises, and at the same time of indoctrinating them with patriotic sen- timents which might be made available to expel the French from Germany. The Prussian gov- ernment favored the plan, and in the spring of 1811 a public gymnastic school or Tumplatz was opened at Berlin, which was quickly imi- tated all over the country. On Feb. 3, 1813, the king of Prussia called the citizens to arms against the French, when all those old enough to enter the military service joined the nation- al cause, and performed signal service. Jahn himself commanded a battalion of Lutzow's volunteers, and after the peace returned to his gymnastic schools. When, however, there was no longer any reason to dread French in- vasion, the government of Prussia, regarding the meeting of patriotic young men as a means of spreading liberal ideas, closed the gymnastic schools, and Jahn was imprisoned. In some other countries, however, the system intro- duced by Jahn was eminently successful, espe- cially in England, Switzerland, Portugal, and Denmark. It was first introduced into female education under the name of callisthenics, when systematic exercises were added to hoop trun- dling, skipping ropes, dumb-bells, &c., already usual among the girls, and to riding, archery, and other healthy outdoor exercises among the women. The masculine sports of cricket, foot- ball, quoits, boxing, wrestling, base ball, leap- frog, foot racing, &c., have been for centuries enjoyed by the boys of England, in the play grounds attached to the schools. In 1848 the political condition of Europe enabled the turn- vereins to be reorganized, and the German emi- gration to the United States has brought these institutions with it. The first society was form- ed in New York, but similar associations soon spread all over the United States. The organi- zation, as first established, was confined to the practice of bodily exercises conducive to physi- cal development ; but it soon assumed a higher scope, without neglecting its original object; libraries were collected, schools were estab- lished, a newspaper ( Turmeitung) was founded, and various arrangements were made for the diffusion of useful knowledge and for mental culture. Thus the turnvereins of the United States tread closely in the track of the acade- my of Athens ; and when we consider the in- timate connection between mind and body how the suffering and the well-being of the one are affected by the condition of the other too much attention can scarcely be paid to the combination of physical with mental improve- ment. The several local organizations of the turnverein hold annually a general meeting, by means of delegates, for the consideration of matters of common interest; they also have an annual festival, attended by representatives of the several organizations, wherein are ex- hibited feats of strength and agility, swimming, military manoeuvres, rifle shooting, sword exer- cise, &c. There are, moreover, several local festivals every year in the respective districts. There are many forms of exercise which re- quire no special skill or practice, and which consequently may be employed with advantage by all. Excluding various games, such as base ball, cricket, and racket, and certain special exercises, as rowing, boxing, and fencing, the most available ordinary exercises are walking and horseback riding. Unless one walks at a rapid rate, little benefit is to be derived from this as an exercise. Two or three miles of walking, at the rate of four miles or more an hour, are more beneficial than a much longer walk when the movements are slow and indo- lent. In the former instance, the method of walking is necessarily more natural and more in accordance with the rules laid down by ath- letes, and the respiratory function is brought into more vigorous action. Horseback exer- cise, particularly the trot, is also beneficial, gives a free use of the arms and legs, strength- ens the back and loins, and is generally exhil- arating. Outdoor sports, such as leaping, the long and high jump, leaping with the pole, "putting the stone," throwing the hammer, running, fast and long walking, &c., are much cultivated in England and Scotland. The Cale- donian games are exhilarating, produce fine and uniform muscular development, and ex- perts in these exercises are almost always models of health and vigor. There are also many valuable methods of exercise that may be profitably employed at home, without ne- cessarily having recourse to a regularly or- ganized gymnasium. The best of these are the following. Swinging Indian clubs is an ex- ercise in which there are many different move- ments, most of which are described in books on gymnastics. This exercise is a good one for the joints, especially the wrists, but does not pro- duce great muscular development, or much im- provement of the " wind." Exercise with light dumb-bells, five pounds or even less, making a great variety of movements, will develop and harden the muscles of the arms and shoulders,
