804 PAINTING PAINTS most elaborate productions. Contemporary with Cole or immediately succeeding him were Doughty, Durand, Inman, and Fisher, the two first named eminent in landscape, and the third the first American painter who attempted genre with success; Rembrandt Peale, Weir, Hunt- ington, Rothermel, and Page, painters of his- tory, portraits, landscape, and genre, and the last named distinguished as a colorist ; Neagle, Morse, Ingham, Harding, and Fraser, portrait painters. Since the middle of the century American painters have devoted most atten- tion to landscape and genre, and their efforts have in a measure reflected the influence of the French school. French paintings pre- dominate in the private collections of the country, and French types of form, color, and design have been reproduced with such modifications as national tastes and habits of thought have rendered necessary. The in- fluence of other modern schools is so slight as to be almost inappreciable. Landscape has been pursued, as a rule, from a purely realistic point of view, American painters in this de- partment seldom aiming to give more than a literal, if sometimes an exaggerated, transcript of nature. Prominent among painters of this class have been Church and Bierstadt, both remarkable for the production of grand and elaborate pictures on an extensive scale ; Ken- sett, whose peculiar mannerism often carried him within the realm of the ideal; Inness, a follower of the French landscapist Rousseau ; James M. and William Hart, Cropsey, Casi- lear, R. S. and S. R. Gifford, G. L. Brown, Bristol, S. Colman, W. T. Richards, Tilton, Tiffany, McEntee, Whittredge, Cranch, La Farge, Griswold, Smillie, Sonntag, Thomas Hill, Mignot, T. Moran, Gay, Gignoux, Wyant, Gerry, Bellows, Shattuck, Bricher, Hubbard, Fitch, and Yewell. Among marine painters may be mentioned E. Moran, De Haas, Dana, Haseltine, Bradford, and Dix. Portraiture has been pursued with success by Elliott, W. M. Hunt, Baker, Healy, Le Clear, W. O. Stone, Hicks, H. P. Gray, Staigg, Ames, Flagg, and others. History and genre are represented by Eastman Johnson, Winslow Homer, Leutze, J. F. Weir, E. White, Mount, May, Powell, Darley, Guy, Lambdin, Hennessey, G. H. Hall, J. G. Brown, Perry, T. W. Wood, Ved- der, Terry, 0. C. Coleman, and Freeman ; and J. H. and W. H. Beard, Butler, P. Mo- ran, Hays, Tait, and Hinckley are noted as painters of animals. The works of Yasari (Florence, 1550 et seq. ; translated into Eng- lish by William Aglionby, 4to, London, 1719, and by Mrs. Jonathan Foster, 5 vols. 8vo, 1850-'53), Ridolfi (Venice, 1648), Lanzi (Flor- ence, 1792), and other Italian writers are main- ly the basis of modern works on the Italian painters and schools. See Bryan, " Biographi- cal and Critical Dictionary of Painters and Engravers" (2 vols. 4to, London, 1816; re- vised and enlarged by Stanley, 1849), and Ott- ley's supplement (1866); Kugler, Handbuch der GeschicJite der Malerei von Konstantin dem Grossen Ms auf die neuere Zeit (2 vols., Berlin, 1837; the portions relating to differ- ent schools translated into English by East- lake, Head, and Waagen) ; Ruskin's " Modern Painters" (5 vols., London, 1843-'50); Lind- say, " Sketches of the History of Christian Art" (3 vols., 1847); Stirling, "Annals of the Artists of Spain" (3 vols., 1848); Charles Blanc, Histoire des peintres de toutes les ecoles (1849-'69); Burckhardt, Der Cicerone: An- leitung zum Genuss der Kunstwerlce Italiens (Basel, 1855 ; revised and enlarged by A. von Zahn and translated into English by Mrs. Clough, 1873); Crowe and Cavalcaselle, "No- tices of Early Flemish Painters " (London, 1856), "History of Painting in Italy" (3 vols., 1866), and "History of Painting in North Ita- ly " (2 vols., 1871) ; Mrs. Jameson's " Memoirs of the Italian Painters" (revised ed., 1859); Lubke, Grundriss der KunstgescJiicJite (Stutt- gart, 1861) ; Waagen, ffandbuch der GescJiicJite der Malerei (1862 et seq.}] Wornum, "Epochs of Painting " (London, 1864); Redgrave, "Cen- tury of Painters of the English School" (2 vols., 1866), and "Dictionary of Artists of the English School" (1874); Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists" (New York, 1867); Hamerton, "Contemporary French Painters" (London, 1867); and Meyer, Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexi- Icon (Leipsic, 1872 et seq.}. PAINTS, coloring substances prepared so that they may be spread with a brush, to color or preserve surfaces. The term is usually applied to mixtures of pigments with oil, but may include those with water and gum or other thickening material. The pulverized solid pig- ments are called the base, and the liquid is called the vehicle, while a third material may be added to give color. Paints which are used by artists are often called "colors," but they only differ from common paints in that their materials are selected with more regard to per- manence of color and fineness. For ordinary house painting, especially for exteriors, white lead is generally regarded as the best base, and boiled linseed oil as the best vehicle. The boiling prepares it, especially when a small portion of litharge (protoxide of lead) is added, to become hardened by oxidation. If white lead paint is exposed to exhalations of gases containing sulphuretted hydrogen, the surface will become converted into a black sulphide, which would cause discoloration in any except a black or dark brown paint. Zinc white, or oxide of zinc, as it does not become tarnished in this way, is often used as a sub- stitute in white paint, especially for interior painting. White lead, however, makes the strongest paint, forming when dry a homoge- neous solid, because it combines chemically with the oil, while the zinc white is only held mechanically by it ; and lead is therefore to be preferred for outside work. It should be se- lected with care, because it is often largely adulterated with ground sulphate of baryta or
